Europe

1. The Holy Roman Empire: Europe's Strategic Fulcrum

This book will show that the Holy Roman Empire, and its successor states, lay at the heart of the European balance of power and the global system it spawned.

Strategic Importance. The Holy Roman Empire (HRE), encompassing much of modern-day Germany, Austria, and surrounding regions, served as the central stage for European power struggles. Its location and resources made it a critical area for any power seeking dominance. Control of the HRE meant control of Europe.

Intersection of Interests. The HRE was the point where the strategic concerns of major European powers converged. England needed it to protect the Low Countries, Spain for resources and imperial legitimacy, France as a buffer and target, and later, Prussia as a springboard for expansion.

Source of Legitimacy. The imperial crown held profound ideological importance, with many European rulers aspiring to the title of Holy Roman Emperor. This title conferred a universal claim to leadership in Christendom, making it a coveted prize in the quest for European mastery.

2. The Enduring Quest for Universal Monarchy

[I]f one potentate wielded absolute power in this realm, all the neighbouring realms would have to apprehend being subjugated.

Habsburg Ambitions. From Charles V to his successors, the Habsburgs sought to establish a "Universal Monarchy" in Europe, uniting Christendom under their rule. This ambition was fueled by their control over vast territories and the imperial crown.

Ottoman Challenge. The Ottoman Empire also aspired to universal dominion, viewing the HRE as the primary obstacle to their expansion into Europe. Suleiman the Magnificent sought to claim the legacy of the Roman Empire and establish Ottoman control over the continent.

French Resistance. France consistently opposed Habsburg and Ottoman ambitions, intervening militarily and diplomatically to prevent the emergence of a single dominant power in Europe. The French sought to protect "German liberties" and maintain a balance of power on the continent.

3. Domestic Politics Shaped by Foreign Policy

[T]he whole world must take me for a cowardly weakling.

Internal Consolidation. The struggle for mastery in Europe drove states to consolidate internally, seeking to increase their military capacity and resource extraction. This process led to different forms of government, from consultative systems to monarchical systems.

Public Sphere. Foreign policy debates stimulated the growth of a public sphere, with citizens and elites engaging in discussions about grand strategy and the common good. These debates often influenced courtly politics and even the rise and fall of dynasties.

Domestic Upheaval. Failure or perceived failure in foreign policy could lead to domestic upheaval. In England, outrage over the loss of territory in France and the failure to support Protestant Germany led to revolts and civil war.

4. The Reformation's Geopolitical Impact

[W]ith this great treasure’ Charles V had ‘got from the French King the Kingdom of Naples, the dukedom of Milan and all his other dominions in Italy, Lombardy, Piedmont and Savoy’.

Religious Divisions. The Reformation created new divisions within and between European states, with Protestants and Catholics forming alliances and engaging in conflicts. These divisions were often exploited by rival powers to undermine their enemies.

Culture of Persuasion. The Reformation encouraged the emergence of a "culture of persuasion," with printed pamphlets, sermons, and images used to mobilize public opinion around religious and political causes. This contributed to the growth of European national and transnational publics.

Strategic Realignment. Despite religious differences, strategic considerations often trumped confessional solidarity. Catholic France allied with the Ottoman Empire and Protestant German princes against the Catholic Habsburgs.

5. The Westphalian System: A Charter for Intervention

[I]f one potentate wielded absolute power in this realm, all the neighbouring realms would have to apprehend being subjugated.

Balance of Power. The Treaty of Westphalia (1648) sought to establish a balance of power in Europe by preventing any single power from dominating the HRE. This was achieved through a series of territorial, constitutional, and confessional provisions.

Guarantor Powers. France and Sweden were recognized as "guarantors" of the HRE, with the right to intervene in German affairs to protect the liberties of its individual "estates." This provided a lever for interference in the internal affairs of the Empire.

Limited Sovereignty. The treaty limited the sovereignty of German princes, preventing them from exercising untrammeled power that might jeopardize the confessional peace of the Empire and the European balance. The Empire was supposed to be strong enough to prevent internal conflict and foreign interference, but not so powerful as to threaten the European order.

6. Succession Crises as Catalysts for Conflict

[T]he Palatinate is on fire; religion is on fire; and all other countries on fire . . . this is dangerous to the Low Countries, the United Provinces and the whole Protestant interest’.

Dynastic Instability. Disputed dynastic successions, particularly in the HRE, Spain, England, and Poland, repeatedly triggered wars and reshaped the European geopolitical landscape. These crises often involved complex alliances and interventions by neighboring powers.

Religious Dimensions. Confessional differences often exacerbated succession crises, with Protestant and Catholic powers supporting rival claimants to thrones. This added a religious dimension to the power struggles of the era.

Germany as the Prize. The HRE and its constituent territories were frequently the prize in succession conflicts, with major powers vying for control or influence in the region. The fate of Germany was often seen as determining the overall balance of power in Europe.

7. The Rise of New Powers: England, Sweden, and Russia

[T]he grand Turk was the beast rising out of the sea described in the Apocalypse’.

England's Ascendancy. After its ejection from France, England returned to European politics with a vengeance, playing a key role in containing Habsburg and French ambitions. Its consultative system of government and naval power enabled it to maintain the European balance.

Sweden's Brief Glory. Sweden emerged as a major force in the Thirty Years War, intervening in Germany to defend Protestantism and prevent Habsburg domination. However, its power declined in the late seventeenth and early eighteenth centuries.

Russia's Emergence. Russia gradually rose to prominence, expanding its territory and influence in eastern Europe. Its intervention in the Great Northern War and the War of the Polish Succession demonstrated its growing power on the European stage.

8. Expansion as a Tool of European Rivalry

At last, empire has been conferred on me by the single consent of Germany, with God, as I deem it, willing and commanding . . .

Outflanking Islam. The initial European expansion was driven by the need to outflank Islam and secure resources for the recovery of the Holy Lands. Exploratory voyages were made along the west coast of Africa to find an alternative route to the east.

Colonial Competition. The colonization of the New World was driven by rivalries between the western powers, with Spain, Portugal, England, and France all seeking to establish overseas empires. These empires provided resources and prestige that could be deployed in the European struggle for mastery.

Subordinate to Europe. Colonial possessions were generally subordinate to European considerations, with powers using their overseas empires to tip the balance on the continent. The colonial balance was conceived as part of the overall balance of power.

9. The Struggle Between Autocracy and Representation

[T]he Palatinate is on fire; religion is on fire; and all other countries on fire . . . this is dangerous to the Low Countries, the United Provinces and the whole Protestant interest’.

Machiavelli's Insight. Niccolò Machiavelli argued that the basis for a strong foreign policy was a sound domestic structure. He believed that republics, with their emphasis on participation and debate, were stronger competitors in the international sphere.

English Exceptionalism. England's experience suggested that Machiavelli was right, with the provision of "good counsel" through parliament seen as essential for strategic success. Taxes were paid on time in return for the king listening to the advice of parliament.

Absolutism's Appeal. However, many European states, such as France, Spain, and Russia, found that greater royal power was a prerequisite for strategic success. These states consolidated internally, reducing the influence of representative assemblies.

10. The Centrality of Germany in European Geopolitics

[T]he Baltic sea will be the ditch, Pomerania and Mecklenburg will serve as counter-scarp, and the other Imperial estates will be, so to speak, the outer works’ of Swedish security.

Strategic Importance. The area corresponding roughly to present-day Germany, northern Italy, and the Low Countries was the strategic center of Europe. At some point or other, the interests of all the major protagonists intersected there.

Source of Legitimacy. The HRE, and its successor states, has also been the principal source of political legitimacy for anybody who wants to speak for Europe. For hundreds of years, the major protagonists have sought the mantle of Holy Roman Emperor, to take up the legacy of Charlemagne.

Driver of Change. The struggle for mastery in Germany also drove the process of internal change in Europe. Failure or perceived failure in Germany during the Thirty Years War led to internal political change across the continent.

Last updated: April 16, 2025