Farnsworth's Classical English Rhetoric

1. Repetition is a powerful rhetorical tool that emphasizes key points

"Repetition is one of the most important general ideas in rhetoric, and later chapters consider a wide range of ways in which it can be used: repetition of words and phrases at the beginning or end of successive sentences or clauses, or repetition of sentence structure, of conjunctions, and so forth."

Types of repetition. Speakers and writers can employ various forms of repetition to drive home their points:

• Epizeuxis: Repeating words consecutively for emphasis (e.g., "The horror! The horror!")
• Anaphora: Repeating words at the beginning of successive clauses or sentences
• Epistrophe: Repeating words at the end of successive clauses or sentences
• Symploce: Combining anaphora and epistrophe
• Anadiplosis: Repeating the last word of one clause at the beginning of the next

Effects of repetition. When used skillfully, repetition can:

• Create rhythm and memorability
• Emphasize key ideas
• Build emotional intensity
• Establish patterns and then break them for effect

2. Parallel structure creates rhythm and reinforces ideas

"The more common use of the device lines up the parts of speech but not the accents, as here: He was a morose, savage-hearted, bad man: idle and dissolute in his habits; cruel and ferocious in his disposition."

Isocolon explained. Isocolon is the use of successive sentences, clauses, or phrases similar in length and parallel in structure. This technique:

• Creates pleasing rhythms
• Reinforces parallel ideas
• Makes statements more memorable

Applications of isocolon:

• To make multiple claims about the same subject
• To make parallel claims about different subjects
• For commands and instructions
• In dialogues for repartee
• To create antithesis (juxtaposition of contrasting ideas)

Effective isocolon often involves a "grow-and-shrink" effect, varying the length of parallel elements to create rhetorical drama and maintain audience interest.

3. Word order manipulation adds emphasis and creates suspense

"Moving upon the banquet of his funeral to the front of the second clause keeps it parallel with the first one, which, in a very mild inversion, puts the modifier (in life) early. It also allows the sentence to end with they most piously do pounce, which is a stronger finish – culminating with action, with a stressed syllable, and with a bit of exploding alliteration at the same time."

Anastrophe defined. Anastrophe is the inversion of the normal word order in a sentence. Common types include:

• Moving the object to the beginning of the sentence
• Reversing the order of a noun and its modifier
• Placing the verb early in the sentence

Effects of anastrophe:

• Emphasizes certain words or phrases
• Creates attractive rhythms
• Compresses meaning
• Builds suspense by delaying key information

Anastrophe can make sentences periodic (grammatically incomplete until the end), which can create tension and release. It's particularly effective when combined with other devices like isocolon or chiasmus.

4. Omission of words can enhance brevity and involve the audience

"An ellipsis involves the audience in an utterance; the reader or listener fills in the missing language, consciously or not."

Types of ellipsis. Ellipsis is the omission of words that are implied by context. Common forms include:

• Omitting nouns (e.g., "The greater idiot ever scolds the lesser")
• Omitting verbs (e.g., "The first lives aft, the last forward")
• Omitting both subject and verb

Rhetorical effects of ellipsis:

• Creates brevity and energy
• Involves the audience by making them fill in gaps
• Emphasizes remaining words
• Strengthens connections between phrases

Ellipsis can be particularly effective when combined with parallel structure, as it allows for compact expression of related ideas. However, it must be used judiciously to avoid confusion or grammatical errors.

5. Rhetorical questions engage listeners and imply answers

"Have you no sense of decency, sir, at long last? Have you left no sense of decency?"

Purpose of rhetorical questions. Erotema, or rhetorical questions, serve several functions:

• Express incredulity or passion
• Challenge listeners to consider implications
• Suggest that an answer is obvious or universally accepted
• Shift the burden of proof to opponents

Types of rhetorical questions:

• Who will say otherwise? (Implying universal agreement)
• Is it not...? (Softening a point by inviting agreement)
• If...why? (Probing logic and implications)
• Begging the question (Embedding controversial claims in premises)

Rhetorical questions are particularly powerful when used in series, creating a sense of building indignation or energy. They can also be combined effectively with other devices like anaphora or epistrophe.

6. Self-correction and negation can strengthen arguments

"Metanoia means correcting oneself; the speaker is, to take the old Greek name of the device literally, changing his mind about whatever has just been said."

Functions of metanoia and litotes. These devices involve self-correction and negation:

• Metanoia: Correcting a statement for emphasis or precision
• Litotes: Using a double negative to make an affirmative claim

Rhetorical effects:

• Create emphasis through unexpected revision
• Allow speakers to say something and then retract it
• Demonstrate scrupulousness or careful thought
• Express understatement or modesty
• Define things by what they are not

Both devices can be used to make points more forcefully while maintaining an appearance of moderation. They can also create humor through paradox or wordplay.

7. Anticipating and addressing objections builds credibility

"Hypophora may heighten interest by creating a moment of suspense. The speaker offers a little mystery, asking a question that the listener cannot answer, at least not readily; then it is solved."

Hypophora and prolepsis explained. These related techniques involve addressing potential objections:

• Hypophora: Asking a question and then answering it
• Prolepsis: Anticipating and responding to potential objections

Benefits of these techniques:

• Create interest and suspense
• Demonstrate fairness and openness to opposing views
• Preemptively address weaknesses in arguments
• Control the framing of objections and responses

Effective use of hypophora and prolepsis can make arguments more persuasive by showing that the speaker has considered multiple perspectives. However, speakers must be careful not to raise objections they cannot adequately address.

Last updated: January 22, 2025