First Principles

1. The American Founders were deeply influenced by classical Greco-Roman thought

"The classical world was far closer to the makers of the American Revolution and the founders of the United States than it is to us today."

Classical education formed the intellectual foundation of the founding generation. They studied Greek and Roman history, philosophy, and literature extensively, viewing ancient republics as models and cautionary tales for their own experiment in self-government. This classical influence shaped their political vocabulary, values, and conception of civic virtue.

Key classical influences included:

• Cicero's orations against tyranny
• Cato's embodiment of republican virtue
• Greek city-states as examples of direct democracy
• The Roman Republic's system of checks and balances

The founders saw themselves as heirs to this classical tradition, using it to justify revolution against British rule and inform the structure of their new government. However, they also recognized the need to adapt classical ideas to modern circumstances.

2. George Washington embodied Roman virtues despite lacking formal classical education

"Washington would spend decades in erecting and polishing that statue of himself."

Leading by example, Washington cultivated an image of Roman dignity and virtue, becoming the American Cincinnatus - a farmer who reluctantly assumed power to save the republic, then willingly relinquished it. Though lacking formal classical education, Washington absorbed classical values through the culture of Virginia's gentry and military service.

Washington's embodiment of classical virtues included:

• Self-restraint and emotional control
• Placing duty to country above personal gain
• Relinquishing power voluntarily after the war and presidency

His conscious emulation of classical ideals helped establish norms of republican leadership that shaped the American presidency. By stepping down after two terms, Washington set a powerful precedent against authoritarian rule that endured until the mid-20th century.

3. John Adams aspired to be the American Cicero, championing republicanism

"Adams loved the speeches of Cicero, reading them aloud to himself at night."

Deeply versed in classics, Adams saw himself as a modern Cicero defending the republic against tyranny and corruption. He used classical allusions and rhetoric extensively in his political writings and speeches, viewing the American Revolution through the lens of Rome's transition from monarchy to republic.

Adams' classical influences shaped his political philosophy:

• Belief in mixed government balancing monarchic, aristocratic, and democratic elements
• Fear of mob rule and demagoguery
• Emphasis on virtue as essential for maintaining a republic

However, Adams' classical outlook eventually put him at odds with the more populist direction of American politics, contributing to his defeat by Jefferson in 1800. His presidency marked the decline of overtly classical political discourse in America.

4. Thomas Jefferson's Epicureanism shaped the Declaration of Independence

"The pursuit of happiness" is the essence of Epicureanism.

Philosophical foundation: Jefferson was deeply influenced by Epicurean philosophy, which emphasized the pursuit of happiness through reason, friendship, and freedom from fear. This worldview profoundly shaped the Declaration of Independence, America's founding document.

Key Epicurean elements in the Declaration:

• Natural rights to "life, liberty, and the pursuit of happiness"
• Government deriving legitimacy from consent of the governed
• Right of revolution against tyrannical rule

Jefferson's Epicureanism also influenced his views on religion, education, and governance. He advocated for religious freedom, public education, and limited government as means of promoting individual liberty and happiness. However, Jefferson's personal pursuit of happiness through slave ownership starkly contradicted his lofty ideals.

5. James Madison's study of ancient confederacies informed the Constitution

"Madison had played a large role in conceiving and drafting it."

Constitutional architect: Madison conducted an extensive study of ancient confederacies, analyzing their strengths and weaknesses to inform the design of the U.S. Constitution. This research proved crucial in addressing the failures of the Articles of Confederation.

Madison's key insights from classical examples:

• Need for a strong central government to preserve unity
• Importance of checks and balances to prevent tyranny
• Dangers of direct democracy and unchecked majority rule

These ideas formed the basis of the Virginia Plan, which became the blueprint for the Constitution. Madison's classical learning allowed him to synthesize ancient wisdom with Enlightenment political theory, creating a uniquely American system of government.

6. The Revolutionary War tested classical ideals of virtue and republicanism

"Washington seems to be sensing the limits of virtue as a driver of the new country."

Wartime challenges forced the founders to confront the limitations of classical republican ideals in sustaining a modern nation at war. The conflict revealed tensions between virtue and self-interest, as well as the need for a more robust national government.

Key realizations during the war:

• Reliance on civic virtue alone was insufficient to maintain the war effort
• A stronger central government was needed to coordinate defense and finance
• Professional military leadership was necessary, challenging the ideal of citizen-soldiers

These lessons shaped the postwar debates over the Constitution, with federalists arguing for a stronger national government to secure the fruits of revolution. The war experience tempered classical idealism with practical considerations of governance.

7. Partisan politics emerged as the new nation moved beyond classical models

"Madison was becoming avowedly partisan."

Political evolution: The 1790s saw the emergence of the first American political parties, challenging the classical ideal of unity and consensus in republican government. This shift reflected the growing complexity of American society and economy.

Factors driving partisan development:

• Debates over the proper scope of federal power
• Regional economic interests
• Differing visions of America's international alignments

Madison and Jefferson embraced partisan organization as a necessary check on government power, while Washington and Adams viewed it as a dangerous threat to national unity. This debate over the role of parties in a republic continues to shape American political discourse.

8. Slavery contradicted the founders' espoused ideals of liberty and equality

"Jefferson seems to have been more steeped in classicism than ever."

Moral contradiction: The persistence of slavery in the new republic starkly contradicted the founders' rhetoric of universal liberty and equality. This tension was particularly acute for slave-owning founders like Jefferson and Madison.

Attempts to reconcile slavery with republican ideals:

• Viewing slavery as a temporary evil to be gradually eliminated
• Arguing for black inferiority based on pseudoscientific racism
• Invoking classical precedents of slavery in Greek and Roman republics

The founders' failure to resolve this contradiction laid the groundwork for future conflict, ultimately leading to civil war. Their classical education provided justifications for slavery even as it inspired ideals of liberty.

9. The Industrial Revolution and westward expansion diminished classical influence

"The remaining fragments of American classicism would be steamrollered by the Industrial Revolution."

Cultural shift: The early 19th century saw a decline in classical influence as America's economy and territory expanded rapidly. New technologies and frontier experiences created a distinctly American culture less rooted in European traditions.

Factors diminishing classical influence:

• Rise of practical and technical education
• Democratization of politics under Andrew Jackson
• Emergence of distinctly American literary and artistic traditions

This shift reflected broader changes in American society, as the agrarian republic envisioned by Jefferson gave way to a more industrial, expansionist nation. Classical learning became increasingly seen as elitist and disconnected from American realities.

10. Modern America must reclaim key founding principles while addressing their limitations

"The Declaration of Independence and the Constitution tell us, especially the Bill of Rights."

Ongoing relevance: While classical influences have waned, core principles established by the founders remain vital to American democracy. Modern citizens must engage critically with this legacy, preserving essential values while addressing historical blindspots.

Key founding principles to uphold:

• Constitutional checks and balances
• Protection of individual rights
• Civic engagement and republican virtue

However, these must be balanced with recognition of the founders' limitations, particularly regarding slavery, women's rights, and Native American relations. Engaging seriously with both the ideals and flaws of the founding generation can help address contemporary challenges to American democracy.

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Last updated: November 3, 2024