From Fatwa to Jihad

1. The Rushdie Affair: A Clash of Worlds, Not Just Faiths

‘The burning book became an icon of the rage of Islam. Sent around the world by a multitude of photographers and TV cameras, the image proclaimed, ‘I am a portent of a new kind of conflict and of a new kind of world.’

Beyond Blasphemy. The controversy surrounding Salman Rushdie's The Satanic Verses was not simply a religious dispute about blasphemy. It was a complex clash between Western liberal values, rooted in the Enlightenment, and a newly assertive form of Islam, fueled by political and social grievances. The burning of the book in Bradford became a symbol of this emerging conflict, signaling a shift from Cold War ideological battles to a perceived clash of civilizations.

• The book burning was a calculated act, designed to shock and offend.
• It was a turning point, highlighting the tensions between secular and religious worldviews.
• The event was a harbinger of future conflicts, linking to 9/11 and 7/7.

Civilizational Fault Lines. The Rushdie affair exposed a perceived fault line between the West, with its emphasis on individual freedom and secularism, and Islam, often seen as rooted in pre-modern theology and illiberal attitudes. This perception, however, oversimplified the complexities of both Western and Islamic societies, ignoring the diversity of views within each.

• The West was seen as rational, scientific, and secular.
• Islam was portrayed as irrational, theocratic, and anti-modern.
• This binary view ignored the internal conflicts and nuances within both cultures.

A New Kind of Conflict. The Rushdie affair marked a shift from traditional political struggles to cultural conflicts, where deeply held beliefs and values were at stake. This new kind of conflict was not about material resources or political power, but about identity, meaning, and the very nature of truth.

• It was the first major cultural conflict in Britain, unlike previous political or law and order issues.
• It raised questions about the compatibility of Islamic values with Western liberal democracy.
• It forced a re-evaluation of multiculturalism and the limits of tolerance.

2. From Street Fights to Book Burnings: The Evolution of Identity

‘So what, I wanted to know, as I watched the pictures of that demonstration, had changed? Why, I wondered, were people now proclaiming themselves to be Muslims and taking to the streets to burn books – especially the books of a writer celebrated for giving voice to the migrant experience?’

Shifting Identities. The Rushdie affair revealed a significant shift in how many British Asians viewed themselves. From a generation that identified as "black" in a political sense, united against racism, many began to embrace a more explicitly religious identity as "Muslims." This shift was driven by a complex mix of factors, including disillusionment with secular politics and a desire to reclaim a sense of belonging.

• Early Asian immigrants identified as "black" as a political label against racism.
• This generation was militantly secular and left-wing.
• The Rushdie affair saw a rise in religious identity, with many proclaiming themselves as Muslims.

Disillusionment with Secularism. Many young Asians, once active in secular anti-racist movements, became disillusioned with the perceived failures of these movements to address their concerns. They felt that the left was more interested in class issues than in tackling racial discrimination, leading them to seek alternative forms of political and social identity.

• Secular anti-racist campaigns seemed to have done little to dislodge racism.
• Many left-wing organizations were seen as more interested in class than race.
• This led to a search for new forms of identity and belonging.

The Rise of Islamic Identity. The Rushdie affair provided a catalyst for the rise of Islamic identity, offering a sense of community and purpose to those who felt alienated from both mainstream British society and their parents' traditions. This new identity was often more rigid and fundamentalist than the traditional Islam of their parents.

• The anti-Rushdie campaign provided a sense of community and purpose.
• It allowed young Asians to "defend their dignity as Muslims."
• It led to a more assertive and militant form of Islamic identity.

3. Multiculturalism's Paradox: Unity Through Division

‘Multiculturalism has helped foster a more tribal England and, within Muslim communities, has undermined progressive trends while strengthening the hand of conservative religious leaders. While it did not create militant Islam, it helped, as we shall see in this book, create for it a space within British Muslim communities that had not existed before.’

The Promise of Diversity. Multiculturalism, initially intended to foster tolerance and equality, inadvertently created a more fragmented society. By emphasizing group rights and cultural differences, it undermined the idea of a common national identity and strengthened the hand of conservative religious leaders within minority communities.

• Multiculturalism aimed to create a society of "cultural diversity, coupled with equal opportunity."
• It led to a focus on group rights and cultural differences.
• It inadvertently undermined progressive trends within minority communities.

The Tribalization of Society. The emphasis on cultural distinctiveness led to a more tribal England, where people increasingly identified with their ethnic or religious group rather than with a shared national identity. This created new divisions and tensions between different communities.

• Multiculturalism fostered a more tribal England.
• It undermined progressive trends within Muslim communities.
• It strengthened the hand of conservative religious leaders.

The Unintended Consequences. While multiculturalism did not create militant Islam, it provided a space for it to flourish within British Muslim communities. By focusing on cultural and religious differences, it inadvertently strengthened the hand of conservative religious leaders and undermined progressive trends.

• Multiculturalism did not create militant Islam, but it created space for it.
• It undermined progressive trends within Muslim communities.
• It strengthened the hand of conservative religious leaders.

4. The Fatwa's Global Reach: A Turning Point in Islam

‘With his four-paragraph pronouncement, the ayatollah had transcended the traditional frontiers of Islam and brought the whole world under his jurisdiction. At the same time, he helped relocate the confrontation between Islam and the West, which until then had been played out largely in the Middle East and south Asia, into the heart of western Europe. For the West, Islam was now a domestic issue.’

Transcending Boundaries. Ayatollah Khomeini's fatwa against Salman Rushdie was a watershed moment, transforming the Rushdie affair from a local dispute into a global conflict. It transcended traditional Islamic law, which had previously limited the reach of fatwas to areas under Sharia law, and brought the entire world under its jurisdiction.

• The fatwa transcended traditional Islamic law.
• It brought the whole world under Khomeini's jurisdiction.
• It relocated the conflict between Islam and the West to the heart of Europe.

A New Geography of Islam. The fatwa helped relocate the confrontation between Islam and the West from the Middle East and South Asia to the heart of Western Europe. Islam was no longer a foreign issue but a domestic one, forcing Western societies to grapple with the challenges of integrating Muslim communities.

• The fatwa relocated the conflict to Western Europe.
• Islam became a domestic issue for the West.
• It forced Western societies to grapple with the challenges of integration.

A Political Tactic. The fatwa was not simply a religious edict but a political tactic by Khomeini to reassert his authority and challenge his Islamic rivals. It allowed him to appeal to the masses and to position himself as the leader of a global Islamic movement.

• The fatwa was a political tactic to respond to inter-Islamic strife.
• It allowed Khomeini to appeal to the masses and challenge his rivals.
• It stopped attempts to improve relations with the West.

5. The Rage of Islam: A Modern, Not Medieval, Phenomenon

‘The illusion held by Islamic radicals … is that they represent tradition when in fact they express a negative form of Westernization.’

Not a Return to the Past. Contemporary radical Islam is not a simple return to traditional religious beliefs but a reaction to modern political and social changes. It is a product of Westernization, albeit a negative one, shaped by the loss of belonging, the blurring of moral lines, and the disenchantment with politics.

• Radical Islam is a reaction to modern political and social changes.
• It is a negative form of Westernization, not a return to tradition.
• It is shaped by the loss of belonging and the disenchantment with politics.

Modern Literalism. The very literalism of fundamentalist Islam is a modern phenomenon, not found in traditional Islam. It is a response to the fragmentation of society and the erosion of traditional social networks, institutions of authority, and moral codes.

• The literalism of fundamentalist Islam is a modern phenomenon.
• It is a response to the fragmentation of society and the erosion of traditional structures.
• It is a reaction to the blurring of traditional moral lines.

Individualized Faith. Contemporary forms of faith, including radical Islam, mark a break with traditional religion. Faith has become disembedded from its historical culture and reconstituted as part of the culture of "expressive individualism," grounded in the primacy of individual experience and rooted in the social values of the "me generation."

• Faith has become disembedded from its historical culture.
• It has been reconstituted as part of the culture of "expressive individualism."
• It is a faith crafted to help people feel good rather than do good.

6. The West's Complicity: Fueling the Fire of Extremism

‘The responses of Western nations first to the fatwa and subsequently to jihad have helped undermine civil liberties, erode freedom of speech and weaken democracy.’

Moral Evasion. Western politicians have often shown a greater willingness to lecture Muslims about the importance of liberty, freedom, and democracy than to defend such values in practice. This moral evasion has emboldened extremists and undermined the very values that the West claims to uphold.

• Western politicians have lectured Muslims about liberty but failed to defend it.
• They have equivocated on the values they claim to uphold.
• This has emboldened extremists and undermined civil liberties.

Strategic Alliances. Western governments have often made strategic alliances with Islamist groups to counter secular radicals, inadvertently strengthening the very forces they claim to oppose. This cynical approach has backfired, creating a space for extremism to flourish.

• Western governments have used Islamists to counter secular radicals.
• This has strengthened the hand of extremist groups.
• It has created a space for extremism to flourish.

The Erosion of Values. The responses of Western nations to the fatwa and to jihad have helped undermine civil liberties, erode freedom of speech, and weaken democracy. By prioritizing security over freedom, they have inadvertently played into the hands of those who seek to destroy Western values.

• Western responses have undermined civil liberties and freedom of speech.
• They have weakened democracy in the name of security.
• They have played into the hands of those who seek to destroy Western values.

7. The Power of Words: Blasphemy, Offense, and Control

‘Criticize yes, abuse no. Islam is the religion of free speech. But there are limits. There are limits in England. Look at how the government banned Spycatcher. Why can’t they ban this filthy novel?’

The Shifting Meaning of Blasphemy. The concept of blasphemy, once used to protect the sanctity of the Christian faith, has been secularized and expanded to protect cultural and religious identities. This has led to a new form of censorship, where the fear of giving offense has become a powerful tool for controlling speech.

• Blasphemy laws were originally designed to protect the Christian faith.
• They have been secularized and expanded to protect cultural and religious identities.
• This has led to a new form of censorship based on the fear of giving offense.

The Limits of Free Speech. The debate over the Rushdie affair and the Danish cartoons has revealed a growing unease with the idea of absolute free speech. Many now argue that free speech must be balanced with the need to protect religious and cultural sensitivities, leading to a greater emphasis on self-censorship and the curtailment of offensive speech.

• Free speech is no longer seen as an absolute right.
• It is now seen as needing to be balanced with the need to protect religious and cultural sensitivities.
• This has led to a greater emphasis on self-censorship.

The Weaponization of Offense. The concept of offense has become a powerful tool for controlling speech and silencing dissent. By claiming to be offended, individuals and groups can demand that certain ideas and expressions be suppressed, effectively limiting the scope of public debate.

• Offense has become a tool for controlling speech.
• It has been used to silence dissent and limit public debate.
• It has led to a culture of self-censorship and fear.

8. Monsters and Myths: The Dangers of Fear and Stereotypes

‘The real face of radical Islam is, however, often very different … ‘Terrorists are a bit like you and me.’

The Demonization of the Other. The Rushdie affair and the subsequent rise of Islamic terrorism have led to the demonization of Muslims, often portrayed as a monolithic, alien force threatening Western societies. This has created a climate of fear and suspicion, making it more difficult to understand the complex realities of Muslim communities.

• Muslims have been demonized as a monolithic, alien force.
• This has created a climate of fear and suspicion.
• It has made it more difficult to understand the complexities of Muslim communities.

The Myth of the Mad Mullah. The media often portrays Islamic radicals as mad mullahs, bearded fanatics, and foreign zealots. This caricature ignores the fact that many radical Islamists are educated, integrated, and often come from middle-class backgrounds.

• The media often portrays Islamic radicals as mad mullahs.
• This ignores the fact that many are educated and integrated.
• It perpetuates a simplistic and inaccurate view of radical Islam.

The Dangers of Fear. The fear of terrorism has led to a curtailment of civil liberties, the erosion of freedom of speech, and the weakening of democracy. By prioritizing security over freedom, Western societies have inadvertently played into the hands of those who seek to destroy their values.

• The fear of terrorism has led to a curtailment of civil liberties.
• It has eroded freedom of speech and weakened democracy.
• It has played into the hands of those who seek to destroy Western values.

Last updated: January 15, 2025