From Here to Equality

1. Slavery's Economic Fruits Benefited All of America

The nation’s wealth, from the very beginning, depended upon the exploitation of black people on three continents.

Slavery's pervasive impact. The economic benefits of slavery extended far beyond the South, fueling growth in the North through industries like shipping, textiles, and finance. New York City, for example, became a global commercial hub largely due to its role in the cotton trade, which relied on enslaved labor. Even seemingly unrelated industries, such as insurance and banking, profited from insuring slaves and financing plantations.

Northern complicity. New England shipyards built vessels for the slave trade, and merchants provisioned slave ships and plantations. This widespread economic dependence on slavery meant that the entire nation, not just the South, was deeply implicated in the system's perpetuation.

Examples of beneficiaries:

• Lehman Brothers: Began as a cotton brokerage in Alabama.
• Brooks Brothers: Supplied "plantation clothing" for slave owners and coarse clothing for slaves.
• New York Life and Aetna: Provided insurance for slave ships and their human cargo.

2. The Republic's Founding Was a Missed Opportunity for Racial Justice

The period of struggle for independence from Britain was rich with possibilities, possibilities that would have been engendered by ending slavery at the origin of the United States but were summarily forsaken.

Revolutionary hypocrisy. The ideals of liberty and equality espoused during the American Revolution stood in stark contrast to the continued enslavement of Africans. While some colonists fought for freedom from British rule, they simultaneously denied freedom to a significant portion of their own population.

Early legal hardening. Colonial laws gradually stripped enslaved people of their rights, solidifying their status as property. This process included reversing Roman civil law to make a child's status dependent on the mother, not the father, ensuring the perpetuation of slavery.

Missed opportunities:

• The Declaration of Independence could have been a document affirming universal rights, but it was compromised by the interests of slaveholders.
• The U.S. Constitution enshrined slavery through the three-fifths compromise, further entrenching racial inequality.

3. Compensated Emancipation: A Road Not Taken

Chapter 5 is an in-depth exploration of the rejected option of compensated emancipation, an option that would have prevented or attenuated the war while also ending black enslavement.

A peaceful alternative. The Civil War, with its immense human and economic costs, might have been avoided through compensated emancipation. This approach, supported by Abraham Lincoln, involved the federal government paying slaveholders for voluntarily freeing their slaves.

Failed attempts. Lincoln proposed compensated emancipation to Delaware and other border states, but these efforts were rejected. Even as late as 1865, during the Hampton Roads Conference, Lincoln offered Confederate leaders financial incentives to end slavery, but they refused.

The cost of intransigence:

• The Civil War cost the Union an estimated $6.1 billion and the Confederacy $2.1 billion.
• Compensated emancipation would have cost significantly less, potentially saving countless lives and resources.

4. Civil War Racism Persisted Even Within the Union Army

Readers may be surprised to learn the extent to which even the Union army was unwilling to incorporate blacks who had joined their ranks as equals.

Unequal treatment. Despite their crucial contributions to the Union war effort, black soldiers faced discrimination within the army. They were often assigned to segregated regiments, denied opportunities for promotion, and paid less than their white counterparts.

The Fort Pillow Massacre. The Confederate massacre at Fort Pillow, where black soldiers were slaughtered after surrendering, exemplified the extreme racism of the era. Even in the Union army, black soldiers were often relegated to the most dangerous tasks.

Examples of discrimination:

• Lower pay for black soldiers
• Segregated regiments
• Denial of officer commissions
• Disproportionate assignment to dangerous tasks

5. Reconstruction's Promise Was Short-Lived

Chapter 9 records the destruction of the dreams and ambitions embodied in Reconstruction and the restoration of a regime of white rule in the post-Confederate South.

Brief period of progress. The Reconstruction era (1865-1877) saw some advancements for black Americans, including the passage of the 14th and 15th Amendments, which granted citizenship and voting rights. Black men were elected to public office, and efforts were made to establish public education systems.

White backlash. White southerners resisted Reconstruction through violence and intimidation. Groups like the Ku Klux Klan terrorized black communities, suppressing black voting and undermining black economic progress.

Compromise of 1877. The contested presidential election of 1876 led to the Compromise of 1877, in which federal troops were withdrawn from the South, effectively ending Reconstruction and ushering in an era of white supremacy.

6. Jim Crow Era Devastation: A Century of Systemic Oppression

Chapter 10 focuses on the abuses of the Jim Crow era, the period of legal segregation in America, while chapter 11 is devoted to the insufficiency of the civil rights era to produce racial equality in the United States.

Legalized segregation. The Jim Crow era (roughly 1877-1964) saw the implementation of state and local laws that enforced racial segregation in all aspects of life. Blacks were denied equal access to education, housing, employment, and public services.

Economic exploitation. Black Americans were systematically denied opportunities for economic advancement. They were often relegated to low-paying jobs, denied access to credit, and subjected to discriminatory lending practices.

White terror. White mobs and vigilante groups carried out massacres and lynchings, destroying black communities and instilling fear. These acts of violence were often sanctioned or ignored by local authorities.

7. Civil Rights Legislation Proved Insufficient for True Equality

Chapter 11 centers on the prolonged devaluation of black life throughout the post–civil rights era via discrimination and violence.

Limited impact. While the Civil Rights Act of 1964 and other legislation outlawed legal segregation, they did not address the underlying economic and social inequalities that persisted. Discrimination continued in housing, employment, and the criminal justice system.

Ongoing disparities. Despite progress in some areas, black Americans continue to face significant disparities in income, wealth, education, health, and incarceration rates. These disparities are a direct result of historical and ongoing systemic racism.

Contemporary challenges:

• Mass incarceration
• Police brutality
• Environmental racism
• Housing discrimination

8. Wealth Disparity: The Cumulative Impact of Racism

Wealth—the difference between what we own and what we owe (or the difference between the value of our assets and our debts, or the net value of our property)—is the economic measure that best captures individual, family, and household well-being.

A key indicator. Wealth, or net worth, is the most powerful indicator of the intergenerational effects of white supremacy on black economic well-being. It reflects the cumulative impact of past and present discrimination.

The racial wealth gap. Median black household net worth is only one-tenth of white net worth. This vast disparity cannot be explained by differences in savings behavior, family structure, or educational attainment.

Intergenerational transmission. White families are far more likely to receive inheritances and in vivo transfers of wealth from older generations, perpetuating the racial wealth gap.

9. Reparations: A Program of Acknowledgment, Redress, and Closure

Reparations are a program of acknowledgment, redress, and closure for a grievous injustice.

Three essential elements. A comprehensive reparations program must include acknowledgment, redress, and closure. Acknowledgment involves a formal apology and recognition of the harm caused by slavery, Jim Crow, and ongoing discrimination.

Redress through restitution. Redress should take the form of restitution, aiming to eliminate racial disparities in wealth, income, education, health, sentencing, political participation, and subsequent opportunities to engage in American political and social life.

Achieving closure. Closure involves mutual reconciliation between African Americans and the beneficiaries of slavery, legal segregation, and ongoing discrimination toward blacks.

10. Black Reparations: A Congressional Matter

For black reparations to become a reality, a dramatic change in who serves as the nation’s elected officials must take place, both in Congress and in the White House.

Federal responsibility. The U.S. Congress, as the legislative branch of the national government, should authorize and implement a program of black reparations. This is because the federal government sanctioned, maintained, and enabled slavery, legal segregation, and continued racial inequality.

A national commission. Congress should establish a commission to investigate the history of racial injustice in the United States and to develop a plan for reparations. This commission should be composed of experts committed to racial justice.

Political will. For black reparations to become a reality, a dramatic change in who serves as the nation’s elected officials must take place, both in Congress and in the White House. New national leadership must be committed fully to black reparations.

11. Addressing Criticisms: Why Reparations Are Just and Feasible

In this chapter, we examine the most frequently voiced criticisms of reparations from both lay and academic audiences.

Common objections. Critics of reparations raise concerns about the timing, logistics, and fairness of such a program. They argue that slavery was too long ago, that it's impossible to determine who should pay and who should receive, and that reparations would only create more racial animosity.

Counterarguments. These criticisms are addressed by emphasizing the ongoing effects of slavery and Jim Crow, the feasibility of establishing eligibility criteria, and the potential for reparations to promote healing and reconciliation.

Key considerations:

• The case for reparations is based on all three tiers of injustice: slavery, Jim Crow, and ongoing racial inequality.
• Reparations are not about guilt or shame but about acknowledging and redressing a historical wrong.
• A well-designed reparations program can be both just and feasible.

Last updated: April 4, 2025