Hidden Figures

1. War Mobilization Opened Doors for Black Women in STEM

With two strokes of a pen—Executive Order 8802, ordering the desegregation of the defense industry, and Executive Order 9346, creating the Fair Employment Practices Committee to monitor the national project of economic inclusion—Roosevelt primed the pump for a new source of labor to come into the tight production process.

Wartime labor needs. World War II created an urgent demand for labor across American industries, including the burgeoning aeronautics sector. As men were absorbed into the military, employers sought new sources of talent, leading to opportunities for women and, eventually, African Americans in roles previously closed to them. This necessity, driven by the war machine, began to chip away at long-standing discriminatory hiring practices.

Activism forced change. The threat of a mass protest march on Washington, D.C., organized by labor leader A. Philip Randolph, compelled President Roosevelt to issue executive orders prohibiting racial discrimination in the defense industry and federal government. These orders, though not perfectly enforced, created the legal framework that allowed qualified black applicants, including women with degrees in mathematics and science, to be considered for jobs at places like the National Advisory Committee for Aeronautics (NACA).

New professional roles. For black women, who were largely confined to teaching or domestic work despite having college degrees, these wartime jobs represented an unprecedented opportunity for professional employment in technical fields. The NACA's Langley Memorial Aeronautical Laboratory in Hampton, Virginia, began hiring black female mathematicians, initially placing them in a segregated computing pool, but opening a crucial door to the world of aeronautical research.

2. Segregation Persisted, But Was Challenged from Within

A white cardboard sign on a table in the back of the cafeteria beckoned them, its crisply stenciled black letters spelling out the lunchroom hierarchy: COLORED COMPUTERS.

Daily indignities. Despite being hired for their intellectual abilities, black employees at NACA Langley faced pervasive segregation, particularly in the early years. This included separate bathrooms and designated seating in the cafeteria, constant reminders of their second-class status even within a federal workplace. These rules were part of the deeply ingrained Jim Crow system of the South.

Quiet acts of defiance. The black women, particularly the "West Computers," did not passively accept these conditions. Miriam Mann, one of the first black women hired, repeatedly removed the "COLORED COMPUTERS" sign from the cafeteria table. These small, persistent acts of resistance, though seemingly minor, were significant challenges to the established order and demonstrated the women's refusal to internalize the humiliation of segregation.

Erosion of barriers. Over time, through their consistent professionalism, undeniable talent, and quiet persistence, the black women earned the respect of many white colleagues and supervisors. While formal segregation took years to dismantle, the daily interactions and demonstrated competence of the black computers helped to break down informal barriers and change perceptions within the laboratory, paving the way for eventual integration.

3. The "Double V" Fueled the Fight for Equality at Home

Let colored Americans adopt the double VV for a double victory; the first V for victory over our enemies from without, the second V for victory over our enemies within.

Patriotism and paradox. African Americans enthusiastically supported the war effort, serving in the military and working in defense industries, but they simultaneously highlighted the hypocrisy of fighting for democracy abroad while being denied basic rights at home. This concept, popularized by the black press, became known as the "Double V" campaign.

Connecting global and local. The fight against fascism overseas drew parallels to the struggle against racial discrimination in the United States. Black leaders and citizens argued that America's credibility on the world stage, particularly in the post-war era as colonial nations sought independence, was undermined by its treatment of its own minority population. Incidents of racial injustice in the South became international news, providing propaganda fodder for the Soviet Union during the Cold War.

Motivation for progress. The Double V ideal fueled the determination of black Americans to push for civil rights and economic opportunity. For the women at Langley, their work was not just a job; it was a contribution to the war effort and a powerful statement about the capabilities of black women, demonstrating their right to full participation in American society and its opportunities.

4. NACA/NASA Provided Unprecedented Professional Opportunity

Working as a research mathematician at Langley was a very, very good black job—and it was also a very, very good female job.

Beyond traditional roles. For college-educated black women, the NACA offered a rare chance to work in a technical field outside of teaching. Despite starting in segregated, lower-paid "computer" roles, their positions were professional civil service jobs with a measure of stability and prestige that was difficult to find elsewhere.

Meritocracy within limits. While segregation and gender bias existed, the technical nature of the work at Langley created a space where talent and accuracy were highly valued. Engineers needed correct numbers, and the women who consistently provided them earned respect, regardless of their race or gender. This focus on merit, though imperfectly applied, allowed some women to advance.

Career paths emerged. Over time, the initial segregated computing pool evolved. Women moved into specialized groups attached to specific wind tunnels or research divisions, gaining deeper technical knowledge. Some, like Mary Jackson and Dorothy Hoover, were able to transition from "computer" or "mathematician" roles to become engineers or research scientists, breaking into the highest ranks available to women at the time.

5. Electronic Computers Signaled Change and New Opportunities

As much as any other profession, aeronautical engineering embodied the restlessness and technological progress that characterized what was already being dubbed the American Century.

Technological evolution. The mid-20th century saw the rise of electronic computers, machines capable of performing calculations far faster than human "computers." This technological shift fundamentally changed the nature of work at places like Langley, moving from manual calculation to programming and managing complex machines.

Adapt or be left behind. Dorothy Vaughan recognized early that the advent of electronic computers would transform the workplace and potentially make human computers obsolete. She proactively sought training in programming languages like FORTRAN and encouraged the women in her group to do the same, understanding that mastering the new technology was essential for long-term career survival and advancement.

New roles, new challenges. The transition to electronic computing created new, highly skilled jobs in programming and data analysis. While this opened doors for some, it also signaled the beginning of the end for the large pools of human computers, a role predominantly held by women. The new field of computer science, initially dominated by women programmers, would eventually see men take over leadership roles as its importance grew.

6. Katherine Johnson's Calculations Were Critical to Spaceflight

“Get the girl to check the numbers,” said the astronaut. If she says the numbers are good, he told them, I’m ready to go.

Trajectory expertise. Katherine Johnson, initially assigned to the Flight Research Division, became indispensable for her exceptional skills in analytical geometry and trajectory calculations. As the focus shifted to spaceflight, her ability to accurately plot the paths of spacecraft became crucial.

Verifying machine calculations. Despite the introduction of electronic computers, astronauts like John Glenn trusted the reliability of human calculation, particularly Katherine's. Before his historic orbital flight, Glenn specifically requested that Katherine manually verify the trajectory calculations produced by the IBM computer, highlighting the confidence placed in her abilities.

Pioneering space math. Katherine's work on orbital mechanics, reentry trajectories, and lunar rendezvous calculations was foundational to Project Mercury and the Apollo program. Her reports, often co-authored with engineers, were critical documents that guided the missions, ensuring the safety and success of American spaceflights, including the Moon landing.

7. Mary Jackson Advocated for Women and Minorities in Engineering

Mary Jackson wasn’t wired to take the easy road or be satisfied with the status quo.

Breaking the engineering barrier. Mary Jackson, initially a computer, pursued engineering coursework and became one of the first black female engineers at Langley. Her talent and persistence, supported by a mentor, allowed her to break into a field overwhelmingly dominated by white men.

Community and advocacy. Beyond her technical work, Mary was deeply involved in her community, particularly in promoting STEM education for black youth and advocating for equal opportunities. She used her position and influence to mentor students, organize science clubs, and connect aspiring black scientists and engineers with opportunities at NASA.

Championing equality at work. Recognizing the systemic barriers faced by women and minorities in advancing at Langley, Mary eventually transitioned from engineering to a role in Human Resources as the Federal Women's Program Manager. In this position, she actively worked to identify and dismantle discriminatory practices, helping other women and minorities achieve promotions and move into leadership roles.

8. Dorothy Vaughan Led the Way and Adapted to the Future

What I changed, I could; what I couldn’t, I endured.

Leadership in segregation. Dorothy Vaughan rose to become the head of the segregated West Area Computing unit, a significant achievement in a discriminatory environment. She was a strong manager who advocated for her team and ensured their work was recognized and valued by engineers.

Embracing technological change. Foreseeing the impact of electronic computers, Dorothy proactively learned programming and encouraged her staff to do the same. This strategic move ensured that when the West Computing unit was eventually dissolved and integrated, the women she led were equipped with the skills needed to remain relevant and employed in the new computing landscape.

Lasting legacy. Though her management role ended with the dissolution of West Computing, Dorothy's foresight and leadership prepared a generation of black female mathematicians for the future. Her influence extended beyond her direct reports, contributing to the broader integration and professional advancement of women and minorities at Langley.

9. The Space Race and Civil Rights Were Intertwined Struggles

While “Red engineering schools” in the Soviet Union were “loaded with women”—one-third of Soviet engineering grads were female, the Washington Post reported in 1958—the United States still struggled to find a place for women and Negroes in its science workplace, and in society at large.

International pressure. The Cold War rivalry with the Soviet Union, particularly after Sputnik, highlighted America's shortcomings, including its racial segregation. The U.S. government became increasingly aware that its treatment of minorities undermined its image as a beacon of democracy and freedom on the global stage, especially in newly independent nations in Africa and Asia.

Parallel movements. The space race and the Civil Rights Movement unfolded concurrently, each influencing the other. The demand for scientific talent spurred by the space program created opportunities for minorities and women, while the Civil Rights Movement's push for equality put pressure on institutions like NASA to integrate and provide equal opportunities.

Contrasting paces. While NASA, as a federal agency under executive orders, moved towards integration faster than many parts of the segregated South, the contrast between the nation's ambitious reach for the stars and the persistent denial of basic rights to its black citizens remained stark. This tension was a constant backdrop to the lives and work of the black employees at Langley.

10. Perseverance and Talent Broke Barriers for Future Generations

Their goal wasn’t to stand out because of their differences; it was to fit in because of their talent.

Beyond the "Firsts". The stories of Katherine Johnson, Dorothy Vaughan, and Mary Jackson are significant not just because they were among the "Firsts," but because they were part of a larger group of talented black women who collectively broke barriers. Their individual achievements were built on the foundation laid by those who came before and paved the way for those who followed.

Collective impact. The success of the West Computers as a group demonstrated the capabilities of black women in technical fields, challenging stereotypes and proving that merit transcended race and gender. Their presence and performance created a legacy that inspired and supported subsequent generations of women and minorities entering STEM careers at NASA and beyond.

Enduring inspiration. The history of these hidden figures serves as a powerful reminder that talent is universal, though opportunity is not. Their story highlights the importance of perseverance, mentorship, and advocacy in overcoming systemic barriers and underscores the value of recognizing the contributions of all individuals, regardless of their background, to the great endeavors of society.

Last updated: May 5, 2025