How Propaganda Works

1. Propaganda exploits flawed ideologies to undermine democracy

Propaganda is manipulation of the rational will to close off debate.

Propaganda defined: Propaganda is a contribution to public discourse that presents itself as embodying certain ideals, yet tends to erode those very ideals. It can take two forms:

• Supporting propaganda: Increases realization of ideals through emotional or non-rational means
• Undermining propaganda: Erodes ideals it claims to embody

Demagoguery: A particularly dangerous form of undermining propaganda that:

• Presents itself as embodying worthy political ideals
• Actually serves goals that undermine those ideals
• Exploits existing flawed ideological beliefs
• Resists rational revision due to connection with identity or self-interest

Propaganda is especially threatening to democracy because it wears down the possibility of genuine democratic deliberation. Even when used for seemingly good causes, it can lead to later problems by reinforcing flawed ideologies and hindering rational debate.

2. Reasonableness is a key democratic ideal often subverted by propaganda

To be reasonable is to take one's proposals to be accountable to everyone in the community.

Reasonableness defined: The capacity to:

• Consider the perspectives of all citizens affected by a policy
• Propose only what could be justifiable to everyone
• Empathize with and respect the dignity of others

Importance for democracy:

• Ensures policies are sensitive to interests of all, including those unable to participate directly
• Fosters mutual respect and accountability among citizens
• Legitimizes democratic decision-making

Propaganda often subverts reasonableness by:

• Appearing reasonable while actually eroding empathy for targeted groups
• Exploiting flawed ideologies to make unreasonable claims seem reasonable
• Using coded language or social meanings to exclude certain perspectives

Protecting and cultivating genuine reasonableness is crucial for maintaining healthy democratic deliberation and resisting the corrosive effects of propaganda.

3. Language and social meanings are powerful tools for propagandistic manipulation

Words are not just names for properties and things.

Linguistic mechanisms of propaganda:

• Not-at-issue content: Conveys information indirectly, making it harder to challenge
• Social meanings: Associations that words carry beyond their literal definitions
• Preference orderings: Ranking of possibilities that shape how we perceive the world

Examples of propagandistic language use:

• "Welfare" in US politics associated with negative stereotypes about Black Americans
• "Inner city" as coded reference to race and poverty
• Slurs that create insider/outsider distinctions

These linguistic tools allow propaganda to:

• Communicate problematic messages while maintaining plausible deniability
• Exploit existing biases and flawed ideologies
• Shape perceptions and judgments in subtle ways

Recognizing and critically examining these linguistic mechanisms is essential for identifying and resisting propaganda in public discourse.

4. Flawed ideologies arise from social inequalities and group identities

Flawed ideological belief masks the contradictions of undermining propaganda by erecting difficult epistemic obstacles to recognizing tendencies of goals to misalign with certain ideals.

Sources of flawed ideologies:

• Substantive inequalities (material, social, economic)
• Group identities and social practices
• Self-interest and need for self-justification

Characteristics of flawed ideologies:

• Resistant to rational revision
• Connected to identity or self-interest
• Prevent acquisition of knowledge about social reality
• Contribute to their own maintenance

Examples:

• Belief in cultural/racial superiority to justify oppression
• Meritocracy myth in unjust societies
• Stereotypes that reinforce existing hierarchies

Flawed ideologies are particularly problematic for democracy because they:

• Make people susceptible to propaganda
• Hinder recognition of social injustices
• Impede genuine democratic deliberation

Addressing flawed ideologies requires examining and challenging the social structures and practices that give rise to them, rather than focusing solely on individual beliefs.

5. Interest-relativity of knowledge creates epistemic barriers for oppressed groups

Members of negatively privileged groups will have to meet higher standards for knowledge of propositions that are, for them, "serious practical questions," in the sense I have elaborated.

Interest-relativity of knowledge: The idea that what counts as knowledge depends on the practical stakes involved for the knower.

Consequences for oppressed groups:

• Higher epistemic standards for knowledge about their oppression
• Difficulty in acting on beliefs about injustice
• Challenges in asserting claims in democratic deliberation

Mechanisms:

• Stereotype threat: Underperformance due to anxiety about confirming negative stereotypes
• Epistemic injustice: Unfair treatment as a knower due to prejudice
• Confidence shaking: Stress reducing belief below the threshold for knowledge

This creates a vicious cycle where:

1. Oppressed groups face higher stakes in political decisions
2. This raises the bar for knowledge about those issues
3. Lack of recognized knowledge hinders political action
4. Inability to act perpetuates oppression

Addressing this requires:

• Recognizing the epistemic barriers faced by oppressed groups
• Creating conditions that support confident knowledge claims
• Critically examining how interests shape our standards of evidence

6. Elites develop legitimizing myths to justify their privileged positions

People with advantages are loath to believe that they just happen to be people with advantages.

Characteristics of elite ideologies:

• Belief in natural superiority or inherent worthiness
• Distinction between intellectual and manual labor
• Meritocratic justifications for inequality

Functions:

• Justify unjust distribution of society's goods
• Maintain social control and hegemony
• Shape educational and cultural institutions

Examples:

• Ancient Greek views on natural slavery
• 19th/20th century scientific racism
• Modern technocratic ideologies

These legitimizing myths are often:

• Presented as objective or scientific fact
• Internalized by both elites and oppressed groups
• Resistant to contradictory evidence

Critically examining and challenging these myths is crucial for:

• Recognizing and addressing social injustices
• Fostering genuine democratic equality
• Creating more just and inclusive institutions

7. Education systems often perpetuate elite ideologies and social control

Ross argues that the most effective method of social control is a "school education that is provided gratuitously for all children by some great social organ."

Education as a tool for social control:

• Shapes values, beliefs, and expectations from an early age
• Determines access to knowledge and opportunities
• Reinforces existing social hierarchies

Historical examples:

• Ancient Greek education for rulers vs. slaves
• Colonial education systems imposing Western ideologies
• Early 20th century US reforms separating vocational and liberal education

Mechanisms of control:

• Curriculum design and content selection
• Tracking and sorting of students
• Emphasis on obedience and conformity

Consequences:

• Perpetuation of flawed ideologies
• Limited social mobility
• Hindered development of critical thinking

Recognizing education's role in social control highlights the need for:

• Critical examination of educational systems and practices
• Inclusive and empowering approaches to learning
• Education that fosters genuine democratic participation and reasoning

Reforming education is crucial for breaking cycles of oppression and creating a more just and democratic society.

Last updated: April 13, 2025