How to Read the Bible

1. Ancient and modern biblical interpretations offer radically different perspectives

To say this is once again to highlight the gap between what we now know about the Bible and what ancient interpreters thought.

Ancient vs. modern approaches. Ancient interpreters sought moral lessons and divine guidance in biblical texts, often employing allegorical or typological readings. They assumed the Bible was cryptic, relevant to their time, perfectly harmonious, and divinely inspired. In contrast, modern scholars approach the Bible as a historical document, analyzing its linguistic, cultural, and archaeological contexts.

Implications of differing interpretations. This stark difference in approach leads to vastly different understandings of biblical narratives and their significance. For example:

• The story of Adam and Eve: Ancient interpreters saw it as the "Fall of Man," while modern scholars view it as an etiological tale about the transition to agriculture.
• The flood narrative: Traditionally seen as a moral lesson about divine judgment, modern scholars see it as a reworking of earlier Mesopotamian flood myths.
• The Exodus: Ancient interpreters focused on its spiritual significance, while modern scholars debate its historical accuracy and potential origins in smaller-scale events.

2. The Documentary Hypothesis challenges traditional views of biblical authorship

Many of the Bible's tales of Israel's remotest ancestors must have existed long before they became part of this or that "document," he believed.

Multiple sources theory. The Documentary Hypothesis proposes that the Pentateuch (first five books of the Bible) was compiled from four main sources:

• J (Yahwist): Uses the name Yahweh for God, anthropomorphic depictions
• E (Elohist): Uses Elohim for God, more abstract conception of deity
• D (Deuteronomist): Focused on religious reform and centralized worship
• P (Priestly): Concerned with ritual, genealogy, and chronology

Evidence and implications. Scholars point to duplicate stories, varying divine names, and linguistic differences as evidence for multiple authors. This theory challenges traditional beliefs about Mosaic authorship and divine dictation, suggesting a more complex process of composition and redaction over centuries.

3. Etiological narratives explain present realities through past events

To understand it, one must be aware of a somewhat gruesome fact of life in the ancient Near East: apparently, various peoples in the region used to sacrifice their own children to their gods.

Purpose of etiological tales. These stories in Genesis and elsewhere aim to explain the origins of:

• Cultural practices (e.g., circumcision)
• Place names (e.g., Babel)
• Relationships between groups (e.g., Israel and Edom)
• Natural phenomena (e.g., why snakes crawl)

Examples and analysis. The near-sacrifice of Isaac may explain Israel's rejection of child sacrifice. The Tower of Babel story might reflect tensions with Babylonian culture. These interpretations suggest that many biblical narratives, rather than being straightforward historical accounts, serve to explain and justify later cultural realities.

4. Biblical laws often parallel ancient Near Eastern legal codes

What captured the attention of biblicists, starting in the 1950s, was the similarity of the form of these treaties to the form of various presentations of God's covenant with Israel, including, prominently, the narrative of Exodus 19–20 culminating in the proclamation of the Ten Commandments.

Comparative analysis. Scholars have identified numerous parallels between biblical laws and earlier Near Eastern codes, such as:

• The Laws of Hammurabi (Babylon, c. 1750 BCE)
• The Laws of Eshnunna (c. 1770 BCE)
• Hittite Laws (c. 1650-1500 BCE)

Implications for biblical studies. These similarities raise questions about the divine origin of biblical law and suggest a common legal tradition in the ancient Near East. However, biblical laws often show unique ethical concerns and theological framing, reflecting Israel's developing monotheism.

5. The concept of covenant shaped Israel's relationship with God

God's covenant with Israel followed a standardized treaty form, and his demand of exclusive loyalty, that is, monolatry, was nothing more than the translation into the divine sphere of a demand that any ancient emperor might have made of his vassal.

Covenant structure. Biblical covenants often mirror ancient Near Eastern treaty formats:

1. Preamble identifying the sovereign
2. Historical prologue recounting past relations
3. Stipulations or laws
4. Provisions for treaty preservation and public reading
5. List of witnesses
6. Blessings and curses

Theological significance. The covenant concept transformed Israel's understanding of its relationship with God, emphasizing both divine election and human responsibility. It provided a framework for interpreting history and shaping ethical behavior.

6. Prophetic tradition emerged as a bridge between God and people

God tried this once, at Mount Sinai/Horeb, but it did not work. People found the act of listening directly to God so frightening that they demanded that God use human intermediaries to carry His words; ever since then, we have had prophets.

Origins of prophecy. The biblical narrative presents prophecy as a response to the people's fear of direct divine communication at Sinai. Modern scholars see it as part of a broader Near Eastern phenomenon of religious intermediaries.

Role and development. Prophets in ancient Israel:

• Interpreted current events in light of the covenant
• Called for social justice and religious fidelity
• Offered critique of rulers and society
• Evolved from local seers to national figures addressing broader issues

The prophetic tradition played a crucial role in shaping Israel's ethical monotheism and understanding of history.

7. Biblical miracles: literal events or metaphorical teachings?

Why is it that, when the Bible reports on something miraculous—something that, it is at pains to claim, was the result of God's direct intervention into our world, a changing of the natural order—there are always people who try to say, often explicitly in "defense" of the Bible, that what happened really has a perfectly logical explanation?

Diverse interpretations. Views on biblical miracles range from:

• Literal acceptance as supernatural events
• Attempts to find natural explanations (e.g., Red Sea crossing as wind phenomenon)
• Metaphorical or symbolic readings

Scholarly perspectives. Modern scholars often view miracle accounts as:

• Reflections of ancient worldviews
• Literary devices serving theological purposes
• Possibly based on remembered natural events, later interpreted as divine intervention

The debate over miracles highlights tensions between faith traditions, scientific worldviews, and literary-critical approaches to the Bible.

8. The evolution of monotheism in ancient Israel

If scholars are right in their restoration of the original vowels, then the name might seem to be in the causal form of the verb "to be," that is, "He causes to be" (although the causative form of this verb appears nowhere else in the Bible).

From monolatry to monotheism. Israel's religious development:

1. Early polytheistic background (shared with neighbors)
2. Monolatry: worship of one god while acknowledging others
3. Henotheism: one supreme god among others
4. Monotheism: belief in one universal deity

Key factors in this evolution:

• Influence of prophetic tradition
• Historical experiences (e.g., exile)
• Theological reflection on the nature of deity

The development of monotheism was a gradual process, reflected in the changing depictions of God throughout the biblical texts.

9. The Ten Commandments: cornerstone of Judeo-Christian ethics

Modern scholarship has not been kind to traditional religious views of the Ten Commandments. Their very form now appears to most scholars to assimilate them to the covenant stipulations found in old Hittite and other ancient Near Eastern treaties.

Historical context. Scholars now view the Decalogue as:

• Reflecting ancient Near Eastern treaty formats
• Possibly evolving over time (differences between Exodus and Deuteronomy versions)
• Combining religious and ethical imperatives

Enduring significance. Despite scholarly debates, the Ten Commandments remain central to Jewish and Christian ethical thought, providing:

• A foundation for monotheistic worship
• Basic principles for social order
• A bridge between religious devotion and ethical behavior

10. Biblical interpretation's impact on religious practice and belief

Legal interpretation was, for various reasons, less of a preoccupation for Christians than for Jews—although the Decalogue and certain other biblical laws were nonetheless an important source in the establishment of the church's canon law.

Jewish tradition. Biblical interpretation shaped:

• Halakhah (Jewish law): Detailed application of biblical principles to daily life
• Midrash: Creative exegesis finding new meanings in the text
• Liturgy and prayer: Incorporating biblical themes and language

Christian approaches. Christian interpretation influenced:

• Theology: Doctrinal development based on biblical exegesis
• Ethics: Moral teachings derived from biblical principles
• Liturgy: Incorporation of biblical narratives and themes in worship

The ongoing process of interpretation has allowed these ancient texts to remain relevant and authoritative for diverse communities across centuries.

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Last updated: May 16, 2025