How We Learn

1. Learning is about forgetting as much as remembering

"We assume it's all bad, a failure of the system. But more often, forgetting is a friend to learning."

Active forgetting is essential for effective learning. It acts as a filter, blocking out irrelevant information and allowing important concepts to stand out. This process helps us focus on what's truly important and makes retrieval of relevant information easier.

Passive forgetting also plays a crucial role. It creates opportunities for relearning, which strengthens memory. This is similar to how muscles grow stronger through cycles of stress and recovery. When we forget and then relearn information, we're not starting from scratch – we're building on existing neural pathways, making the memory more robust.

The brain's forgetting mechanism is highly sophisticated:

• It helps us update outdated information
• It allows us to adapt to new environments
• It prevents cognitive overload by clearing out unnecessary details

2. Spaced practice beats cramming for long-term retention

"Distributed learning, in certain situations, can double the amount we remember later on."

The spacing effect is one of the most powerful and reliable learning techniques. By spreading out study sessions over time, rather than cramming everything into one long session, we significantly improve long-term retention. This effect works for various types of learning, from vocabulary to scientific concepts.

The optimal spacing interval depends on how long you need to remember the information:

• For a test in a week: Study today and tomorrow
• For a test in a month: Study today, in a week, and a day before the test
• For long-term retention: Space study sessions over even longer intervals

Benefits of spaced practice:

• Allows time for consolidation between sessions
• Leverages the benefits of sleep for memory formation
• Provides opportunities for retrieval practice, strengthening recall

3. Testing yourself is more effective than passive review

"Testing does not = studying, after all. In fact, testing > studying, and by a country mile, on delayed tests."

Retrieval practice is a powerful learning tool. When we test ourselves, we're not just measuring what we know – we're actively strengthening our memory and understanding. This effect is so strong that testing can be more effective than additional study time.

Key benefits of self-testing:

• Identifies gaps in knowledge
• Strengthens memory pathways
• Improves long-term retention
• Enhances transfer of knowledge to new situations

Effective ways to incorporate testing:

• Use flashcards
• Take practice exams
• Explain concepts to others
• Write summaries from memory

Even unsuccessful retrieval attempts can be beneficial, as they prime the brain for future learning. This is why "pretesting" – attempting to answer questions before studying the material – can enhance subsequent learning.

4. Interleaving subjects enhances learning and problem-solving

"Interleaving paintings by different artists was more effective than massing all of an artist's paintings together."

Mixed practice involves studying or practicing different skills or subjects in an interleaved fashion, rather than focusing on one topic at a time. This approach may feel less productive in the short term, but it leads to better long-term learning and skill development.

Benefits of interleaving:

• Improves ability to discriminate between problem types
• Enhances transfer of skills to new situations
• Builds more flexible and robust knowledge

Examples of effective interleaving:

• In math: Mix different types of problems rather than doing all of one type
• In sports: Practice various skills in each session instead of focusing on one
• In music: Alternate between scales, theory, and pieces rather than spending long periods on each

While interleaving can initially feel more challenging, this "desirable difficulty" leads to stronger learning outcomes. It prepares learners to apply their knowledge in varied contexts, mirroring real-world applications.

5. Sleep plays a crucial role in memory consolidation

"In a fundamental sense, that is, sleep is learning."

The Night Shift Theory proposes that different stages of sleep play distinct roles in consolidating various types of memories and skills. Far from being a passive state, sleep actively processes and organizes the information we've encountered during the day.

Key sleep stages and their roles in learning:

• REM sleep: Aids pattern recognition and creative problem-solving
• Stage 2 sleep: Consolidates motor memories and skills
• Slow-wave (deep) sleep: Strengthens declarative memories (facts and events)

Practical implications:

• Naps can provide significant learning benefits
• Timing sleep relative to learning can enhance specific types of memory
• Sleep deprivation can severely impair learning and memory formation

Understanding sleep's role in learning can help us optimize our study and practice schedules. For example, studying before sleep can enhance retention, and taking a nap after learning can boost performance on later tests.

6. Perceptual learning taps into our brain's pattern recognition abilities

"The brain is exquisitely tuned to pick up incongruities, all of our work tells us that."

Perceptual learning involves improving our ability to detect and interpret sensory information. This type of learning is often unconscious and automatic, playing a crucial role in developing expertise in various fields.

Key aspects of perceptual learning:

• Develops through repeated exposure to relevant stimuli
• Improves ability to distinguish subtle differences
• Enhances pattern recognition in complex information

Applications of perceptual learning:

• Medical diagnosis: Recognizing patterns in X-rays or skin conditions
• Sports: Reading opponents' movements or ball trajectories
• Music: Distinguishing subtle differences in pitch or timbre

Perceptual learning modules (PLMs) can accelerate the development of these skills. These computer-based training programs expose learners to numerous examples, helping them develop intuitive pattern recognition abilities much faster than traditional methods.

7. Embrace distractions and breaks to enhance creative problem-solving

"When teachers hear the word 'testing,' because of all the negative connotations, all this baggage, they say, 'We don't need more tests, we need less.' "

Incubation refers to the process of stepping away from a problem and allowing the mind to work on it unconsciously. This can lead to sudden insights or solutions that weren't apparent during focused work.

Benefits of strategic breaks:

• Allow for unconscious processing of information
• Reduce fixation on unproductive approaches
• Provide opportunities for new connections to form

Effective incubation strategies:

• Take a walk or engage in light exercise
• Switch to an unrelated task
• Get a good night's sleep

It's important to note that incubation works best after a period of focused effort on the problem. The initial struggle primes the mind for insight, while the break allows for unconscious processing.

8. Our instincts about learning are often misguided

"We forget that we forget."

Many common beliefs about effective learning are not supported by research. These misconceptions can lead to inefficient study habits and frustration.

Common learning myths:

• Rereading is an effective study strategy
• Highlighting key passages improves retention
• Studying in a single, quiet location is ideal
• Focusing on one skill at a time is the best way to improve

Reality-based learning strategies:

• Active recall through self-testing
• Spaced practice over time
• Varied study environments
• Interleaved practice of different skills or subjects

Understanding the science of learning can help us overcome these instincts and adopt more effective approaches. It's important to recognize that what feels effective in the moment (like rereading) may not lead to the best long-term learning outcomes.

9. Context changes can improve memory and recall

"Studying while seriously impaired is wasted time, in more ways than one, as millions of students have learned the hard way."

Environmental context plays a significant role in how we encode and retrieve memories. Surprisingly, changing the context during learning can enhance overall retention and recall.

Benefits of varied study contexts:

• Creates multiple retrieval cues
• Reduces context-dependent memory
• Improves ability to recall information in different situations

Practical applications:

• Study in different locations
• Vary background noise or music
• Change posture or position while studying

While consistency in study habits is often emphasized, introducing controlled variability can lead to more robust and flexible learning. This approach helps prepare the mind to recall information in various real-world contexts, not just in the specific environment where it was learned.

10. Varied practice leads to better skill acquisition than repetitive drills

"Varied practice produces a slower apparent rate of improvement in each single practice session but a greater accumulation of skill and learning over time."

Desirable difficulties are challenges during learning that may initially slow progress but lead to better long-term outcomes. Varied practice is a prime example of this principle.

Benefits of varied practice:

• Enhances ability to adapt skills to new situations
• Improves problem-solving and decision-making
• Leads to more durable and flexible learning

Examples of varied practice:

• In sports: Practicing under different conditions (e.g., different ball speeds, court positions)
• In music: Playing pieces in various styles or tempos
• In academics: Solving problems that require applying concepts in diverse contexts

While blocked practice (repetitive drills) may show faster initial improvements, varied practice leads to better retention and transfer of skills. This approach better prepares learners for the complexity and unpredictability of real-world applications.

Last updated: January 23, 2025