In Praise of Prejudice

1. Prejudice is Inevitable, Not Inherently Bad

Prejudice is like Nature in the famous line from the Epistles of Horace: you may toss her out with a pitchfork, yet she will soon return.

Ubiquitous nature. Prejudice, defined as preconceived opinions or biases, is not an anomaly but a fundamental aspect of human cognition. It's impossible to eliminate all biases, as they are deeply ingrained in our thinking and behavior. Like nature, prejudice will always find a way to resurface, even when we try to suppress it.

Not always negative. While prejudice is often associated with negative connotations, it's not inherently bad. Some prejudices, such as those that promote family values or social order, can be beneficial. The key is to distinguish between harmful and helpful biases, rather than attempting to eradicate all forms of prejudice. For example, a prejudice against harming others is a cornerstone of morality.

Socially constructed. Prejudices are often shaped by our social environment, upbringing, and cultural norms. They are not always the result of conscious reasoning or personal experience. This means that prejudices can be both positive and negative, and they can change over time as social norms evolve.

2. Skepticism Can Be a Tool for Self-Serving License

The popularity of the Cartesian method is not the consequence of a desire to remove metaphysical doubt, and find certainty, but precisely the opposite: to cast doubt on everything, and thereby increase the scope of personal license, by destroying in advance any philosophical basis for the limitation of our own appetites.

Radical skepticism. The modern embrace of radical skepticism, often framed as a pursuit of truth, can be a guise for self-serving license. By questioning all established norms and values, individuals can justify their own desires and whims, without any moral or social constraints. This skepticism is not about finding truth, but about expanding personal freedom.

Selective doubt. This skepticism is often selective, applied only when it serves personal interests. People may doubt the existence of God or the validity of traditional morality, but rarely question the reliability of their own senses or the laws of physics. This selective skepticism reveals that the goal is not truth, but the removal of limitations.

Moral relativism. The result of this skepticism is often moral relativism, where all values are considered equally valid. This can lead to a society where there are no shared moral standards, and where individuals are free to act as they please, regardless of the consequences for others.

3. History is Subjective, Not Objective

Facts alone (à la Gradgrind) cannot compel the framework into which they are fitted, though they may encourage the more intellectually honest of us to reconsider our framework.

Interpretive lens. History is not a collection of objective facts, but a narrative constructed through an interpretive lens. Historians select and arrange facts to support a particular viewpoint or argument. This means that history is always subjective, and there are multiple ways to interpret the past.

Selective facts. The selection of facts is crucial in shaping historical narratives. By focusing on certain events and ignoring others, historians can create a biased or incomplete picture of the past. For example, a history of Europe that focuses solely on wars and genocides will present a very different picture than one that emphasizes cultural achievements and scientific progress.

Present concerns. Our present concerns and biases often influence how we interpret the past. We tend to read history backward, tracing present-day issues and concerns through the whole of history. This can lead to a distorted understanding of the past, as we impose our own values and perspectives on historical events.

4. Disaster Narratives Often Trump Achievement

It is hardly a matter of dispute that the Whig interpretation of history is not much in favor nowadays, even in the sphere in which it is most plausible, and at least as plausible as any other interpretation. The crime-and-folly view is much preferred.

Negative focus. There is a tendency to prefer narratives of disaster and failure over those of achievement and progress. This is partly because negative events are often more dramatic and attention-grabbing. It is also because focusing on the negative allows us to feel morally superior to those who came before us.

Moral superiority. By emphasizing the crimes and follies of the past, we can create a sense of moral superiority in the present. This allows us to feel that we are more enlightened and virtuous than our ancestors. This can lead to a distorted view of history, where we focus on the negative aspects and ignore the positive ones.

Psychological effects. The focus on disaster narratives can have negative psychological effects. It can lead to a sense of hopelessness and cynicism, as we come to believe that history is nothing but a record of human cruelty and folly. This can make it difficult to believe in the possibility of progress or positive change.

5. Unprejudiced Pedagogy Can Be Harmful

By abdicating their responsibility in this fashion, in the name of not passing on their own prejudices or preconceptions to their children, and not imposing their own view of what is right upon them, they enclose their children within the circle of their childish tastes.

Authority abdication. The desire to avoid imposing prejudices on children can lead to an abdication of parental authority. By allowing children to make all their own choices, parents fail to provide the guidance and structure that children need to develop into responsible adults. This can result in children who are slaves to their own whims and desires.

Childish tastes. Children, lacking experience and judgment, will often make choices that are harmful to themselves. By allowing children to make all their own decisions, parents enclose them within the circle of their childish tastes. This can lead to the development of harmful habits and a lack of self-control.

Arrested development. The precocity encouraged by too-early an assumption of responsibility can lead to arrested development. Children who are constantly consulted over their likes and dislikes learn that life is, and ought to be, ruled by their whims. This can make it difficult for them to adapt to the demands of adulthood.

6. Prejudice is Necessary for Family and Social Life

The prejudice in favor of family meals as the means by which people should, for preference, take their sustenance, broke down because of insistent criticism.

Social rituals. Certain prejudices, such as the prejudice in favor of family meals, are necessary for the maintenance of social order and cohesion. These rituals provide a framework for social interaction and help to create a sense of community. When these prejudices are abandoned, social life can become fragmented and chaotic.

Family structure. The prejudice in favor of the traditional family structure, while not without its flaws, provides a stable environment for raising children. The breakdown of this prejudice has led to a rise in single-parent families and a decline in social stability. This is not to say that all single-parent families are dysfunctional, but that the traditional family structure provides a framework that is often beneficial.

Social norms. Prejudices, in the form of social norms, provide a guide for behavior and help to maintain social order. When these norms are abandoned, people are left without a clear sense of what is right and wrong. This can lead to a breakdown of social cohesion and an increase in antisocial behavior.

7. New Prejudices Replace Old Ones

To overturn a prejudice is not to destroy prejudice as such. It is rather to inculcate another prejudice.

Inescapable bias. It is impossible to eliminate prejudice altogether. When one prejudice is overturned, it is inevitably replaced by another. This is because human beings are incapable of thinking without some form of bias or preconceived notion. The goal should not be to eliminate prejudice, but to replace harmful prejudices with helpful ones.

Intellectual preening. The intellectual class often adopts new prejudices as a form of intellectual preening and point-scoring. They may criticize traditional prejudices, not because they are genuinely concerned about their harmful effects, but because it allows them to appear bold, generous, and independent-minded. This can lead to a situation where new prejudices are adopted without any real consideration of their consequences.

Unintended consequences. The replacement of old prejudices with new ones can have unintended consequences. For example, the prejudice against illegitimate children has been replaced by the prejudice that there is nothing wrong with it at all. This has led to a rise in single-parent families and a decline in social stability.

8. Lack of Prejudice Can Be Cruel

Would it not have been better, for her in particular and for the world in general, if she had been instilled at an early age with a prejudice that she should not have a child until such time as she was able, with the child’s father, to offer the child a stable base from which he or she would later be able to launch his or her own life?

Unrealistic expectations. The expectation that young people can make wise decisions without the guidance of prejudice is unrealistic. Young people, lacking experience and judgment, are often unable to make the most fundamental choices in life without the benefit of inherited wisdom. This can lead to disastrous consequences for both themselves and their children.

Moral reflection. The absence of prejudice can lead to a lack of moral reflection. When people are not guided by inherited wisdom, they are more likely to make decisions based on their immediate desires and whims. This can lead to a situation where people act selfishly and without regard for the consequences of their actions.

Social harm. The lack of prejudice can lead to social harm. When people are not guided by social norms, they are more likely to engage in antisocial behavior. This can lead to a breakdown of social cohesion and an increase in crime and violence.

9. Rationality is Overestimated in Human Choice

The vast majority of men—and here I include myself, so I mean no disrespect— cannot go through life as if it were a long series of intellectual and moral puzzles.

Limited role of reason. The role of reason in human decision-making is often overestimated. Most people do not make decisions based on careful analysis and logical deduction. Instead, they rely on intuition, emotion, and habit. This is not necessarily a bad thing, as it allows us to make decisions quickly and efficiently.

Moral puzzles. Life is not a series of intellectual and moral puzzles that can be solved by reason alone. Many of the most important decisions in life are made based on values and beliefs that cannot be proven or disproven. This means that we must rely on something other than reason to guide our actions.

Practical limitations. The idea that we should make all our decisions based on reason is impractical. It would require an enormous amount of time and effort to analyze every decision we make. This would make it impossible to live a normal life.

10. Authority is Necessary for Knowledge

The vast majority of our knowledge comes to us in the same way. I have known from a very early age that a battle took place at Hastings in the year 1066, but I still do not know how to prove that it did.

Knowledge by authority. Most of our knowledge comes to us through authority, not through personal experience or direct observation. We rely on experts, teachers, and other sources of information to learn about the world. This is not necessarily a bad thing, as it allows us to benefit from the knowledge and experience of others.

Provisional knowledge. Scientific knowledge is always provisional and subject to revision. However, this does not mean that all scientific knowledge is equally uncertain. Some scientific facts, such as the circulation of the blood, are so well-established that they are unlikely to be overturned.

Value of institutions. Our civilization has created institutions that are designed to seek and disseminate knowledge. These institutions work only to the degree that they are free to examine prejudice and preconceived ideas. However, freedom does not imply the uncritical exercise of it.

11. Unconventionality Can Become a Convention

In a sense, every human being is original, and that without effort or self-consciousness: many of every person’s utterances have never been uttered before and will never be uttered again.

Desire for originality. The desire to be unconventional and original has become a convention in itself. People often seek to distinguish themselves from others by adopting unusual or eccentric behaviors. This can lead to a situation where unconventionality becomes a form of conformity.

Meta-originality. The desire for originality can lead to a kind of meta-originality, where people seek to be original in their unconventionality. This can lead to a kind of arms race, where people try to outdo each other in their attempts to be different.

Mass bohemianization. The mass bohemianization of society has not necessarily resulted in a flowering of worthwhile individuality or cultural achievement. It has often led to a situation where people adopt unconventional behaviors without any real understanding of their meaning or purpose.

12. Radical Individualism Leads to Authoritarianism

Radical individualism is thus not only compatible with the radical centralization of authority, but is a product of it.

Erosion of intermediate authorities. Radical individualism, by undermining traditional authorities such as family, church, and community, creates a vacuum that is filled by the state. When people no longer feel bound by social obligations, they become more dependent on the state for guidance and support.

Moral arbiters. The state, by becoming the moral arbiter of society, gains increasing power over individuals. When everything that is not forbidden is permissible, the state becomes the ultimate authority on what is right and wrong. This can lead to a situation where the state controls every aspect of people's lives.

Corporatization of society. The corporatization of society proceeds alongside the extension of unbridled egotism. As individuals become more focused on their own desires and whims, they become more willing to accept the central direction of their lives by the state. This can lead to a situation where people are treated as mere cogs in a machine.

Last updated: January 25, 2025