India's Wars

1. Military History: A Neglected Pillar of Indian Discourse

Military history from a political context is the structured study of force application in furtherance of statecraft and state policy.

Understanding the military. Despite the Indian armed forces' crucial role in safeguarding sovereignty and democracy since 1947, their contribution is often overlooked in mainstream historical narratives. This neglect stems partly from a dominant focus on social, political, and intellectual history, and a perceived "pacifist" tag attached to modern Indian strategic thinking. Policymakers and academics have been slow to declassify relevant material or integrate military history into broader historical and strategic studies.

Absence in academia. Unlike Western universities, Indian institutions largely lack dedicated military history departments. This gap extends to professional military education, where post-Independence conflicts are not holistically studied. This hinders learning from past mistakes and understanding the military's evolving role in a chaotic democracy.

Bridging the gap. Chronicling India's wars is vital to showcase the sacrifices of its soldiers, sailors, and air warriors to a youthful population and international audience. It highlights the armed forces as a critical element of nation-building, essential for maintaining stability and understanding the perils of conflict in a complex geopolitical environment.

2. The Diverse DNA of India's Armed Forces: Beyond Colonial Roots

Ayo Gorkhali! Har Har Mahadev, Jwala Mata ki Jai, Bole So Nihal Sat Sri Akal and many more war cries represent the astounding diversity of the Indian Army...

Indigenous foundations. While the British colonial era significantly shaped India's armed forces, their DNA also draws from earlier Indian martial traditions. The guerrilla forces of Shivaji and the modern, multi-ethnic army of Maharaja Ranjit Singh demonstrated organized structures, discipline, and the ability to assimilate new military ideas and technologies long before British dominance.

Colonial restructuring. The 1857 revolt prompted a sweeping reorganization of the British Indian Army under the Crown. This involved identifying "martial races," standardizing training, and fostering regimental loyalty over nationalistic feelings. While controversial, this created a professional force, tested in WWI and WWII, that formed the core of the post-Independence military.

Post-Independence evolution. The Indian Army inherited this structure but gradually moved towards a more inclusive, multi-class composition, reflecting India's diverse democracy. The Navy and Air Force, though younger and less burdened by historical legacies, also adopted professional standards, adapting to modern warfare and joint operations, becoming integral to India's defense.

3. Teething Years: Baptism by Fire in Post-Partition Conflicts

India’s baptism as a nation state was by waging war against state-sponsored tribals and regular Pakistani forces, which attempted to exploit the rather precarious political situation in the state of Jammu and Kashmir and sever it from the Indian Union.

Kashmir War (1947-48). Pakistan's tribal invasion of Jammu and Kashmir, supported by its army, aimed to force the state's accession. India's response, though initially delayed, involved a crucial airlift to save Srinagar, followed by fierce battles in the Valley, Poonch, and Ladakh. Despite strategic surprises and logistical challenges, Indian forces, aided by the nascent Air Force, held key areas, preventing a complete takeover before a UN-brokered ceasefire.

Integration of Princely States. Simultaneously, India used calibrated force to integrate reluctant princely states.

• Junagadh (1947): A swift military show of force compelled the Nawab to flee, leading to accession based on a plebiscite.
• Hyderabad (1948): "Operation Polo," a larger military action, ended the Nizam's independence aspirations and quelled the Razakar militia's violence. This demonstrated India's willingness to use force for internal security and national unity.
• Goa (1961): After years of diplomatic efforts, "Operation Vijay," a swift tri-service operation, liberated Goa, Daman, and Diu from Portuguese rule, ending centuries of colonial presence.

Early lessons. These conflicts highlighted India's initial strategic naivety, logistical constraints, and the challenges of joint operations. However, they also showcased the professionalism, adaptability, and secular ethos of the armed forces, which fought effectively despite limited resources and political indecision.

4. The 1962 War: Strategic Naivety Meets Chinese Realpolitik

India’s inability to gauge China’s grand strategy in the 1950s and understand its key determinants of securing historically unsettled frontiers, resolving border disputes from a position of strength, and building capabilities for pan-Asian hegemony resulted in the ill-fated conflict of 1962.

Misreading China. India, guided by Nehru's idealism and focus on non-alignment, failed to grasp China's realist approach to border disputes and territorial claims, particularly in Aksai Chin and along the McMahon Line. Despite warnings and evidence of Chinese infrastructure build-up (like the Aksai Chin highway), India pursued a diplomatic path without backing it with military preparedness.

The Forward Policy. Under pressure, India adopted a "Forward Policy," establishing small, isolated posts in disputed areas. This was a politically driven strategy, militarily unsound, lacking adequate logistics, firepower, and air support. It provoked China without providing a credible deterrent.

Military defeat. China launched a swift, decisive offensive in October 1962, overwhelming unprepared Indian forces in both NEFA and Ladakh.

• Eastern Front: Indian defenses collapsed due to dispersed positions, lack of acclimatization, and inadequate support.
• Western Front: Despite some valiant resistance (e.g., Rezang La), Indian posts were overrun by numerically superior Chinese forces.
  The war exposed India's intelligence failures, strategic miscalculations, and the military's unpreparedness for high-altitude conflict, leading to a humiliating defeat.

5. The 1965 War: A Probing Conflict and Operational Stalemate

The September 1965 conflict with Pakistan across three battlefronts was actually ‘a baptism by fire’ for India’s almost non-existent joint war-fighting capability.

Pakistan's gambit. Emboldened by India's 1962 defeat and its own military modernization (aided by the US), Pakistan initiated conflict with probing actions in the Rann of Kutch, followed by "Operation Gibraltar," an infiltration campaign in Kashmir. The aim was to incite a rebellion and seize the state.

Indian response. India countered the infiltration effectively, pushing back the raiders and capturing key areas like the Haji Pir Pass. When Pakistan launched "Operation Grand Slam," an armored thrust towards Akhnur to cut off Kashmir, India responded with offensives on the Punjab front (Lahore and Sialkot).

Operational stalemate. The war saw intense battles, particularly tank engagements in Punjab (Assal Uttar, Phillaur, Chawinda). Both sides faced challenges:

• India: Lack of joint planning, inadequate intelligence, and initial hesitation in using air power effectively.
• Pakistan: Overconfidence, poor coordination between infantry and armor, and failure to achieve strategic objectives despite tactical gains.
  The conflict ended in a military stalemate, but India achieved its strategic goal of thwarting Pakistan's attempt to seize Kashmir by force.

6. The 1971 War: Strategic Decisiveness and Joint Victory

The 1970s began with a decisive strategic and military success for India in the two-front 1971 war against Pakistan.

Crisis in East Pakistan. Pakistan's brutal crackdown on Bengali nationalism led to a humanitarian crisis with millions of refugees flooding into India. Indira Gandhi, backed by a united nation, decided to intervene, but waited for the opportune moment (winter) to ensure military readiness and minimize external interference.

Strategic preparation. India meticulously prepared, strengthening its military, signing a friendship treaty with the Soviet Union, and training the Mukti Bahini guerrilla force. This created a significant asymmetry in the eastern theatre and neutralized potential threats from the US and China.

Joint victory. India launched a swift, multi-pronged offensive into East Pakistan in December 1971.

• Eastern Front: Indian forces, aided by the Mukti Bahini and effective joint operations (air support, heliborne assaults, naval blockade), rapidly advanced, bypassing Pakistani strongholds and converging on Dacca. The psychological impact of the offensive and air strikes broke Pakistani resistance, leading to the surrender of 93,000 troops and the birth of Bangladesh in just 14 days.
• Western Front: India adopted an "offensive-defense" strategy, holding ground while launching limited offensives (e.g., Shakargarh, Kargil). The Navy's daring missile strikes on Karachi crippled Pakistan's maritime capability.
  The war was a resounding victory for India, showcasing strategic decisiveness, effective joint planning, and the professionalism of its armed forces.

7. Lessons Learned: Evolution of Indian Statecraft and Military Prowess

That men do not learn very much from the lessons of history is the most important of all the lessons that history has to teach.

Strategic evolution. India's post-Independence conflicts reveal an evolution in its approach to statecraft. From the initial reactive and somewhat diffident use of force, influenced by idealism and anti-military bias, India moved towards a more assertive and integrated strategy by 1971, combining diplomacy, covert action, and decisive military power.

Jointness and leadership. The wars highlighted the critical need for inter-service synergy. While early conflicts saw coordination gaps, the 1971 war demonstrated the power of joint planning and execution, driven by strong, personality-driven leadership at operational levels. The conflicts also showcased the bravery and professionalism of Indian soldiers, sailors, and air warriors across all communities, debunking colonial-era martial race theories.

Enduring challenges. Despite victories, challenges remain:

• Integrating military history into national discourse and strategic thinking.
• Maintaining civil-military harmony and trust.
• Sustaining military modernization and preparedness.
• Resolving lingering border disputes and countering asymmetric threats.
  The legacy of these wars underscores the armed forces' vital role in India's journey and the continuous need to learn from history to navigate future security challenges.

Last updated: June 16, 2025