Invaders and Infidels

1. Early Arab Invasions Faced Three Centuries of Hindu Resistance

Ultimately, after three centuries of unremitting efforts, we find the Arab dominion in India confined to the two petty states of Mansurah and Multan.

Persistent Arab attempts. From the 7th century, Arab armies repeatedly tried to conquer parts of India, particularly Sindh, following the rapid expansion of Islam elsewhere. Early expeditions to Thane, Bharuch, and Debal met with defeat, signaling India was not an easy target like the Byzantine or Sassanid empires.

Stubborn Hindu defense. Despite superior Arab military force and religious zeal, Hindu kingdoms and local tribes like the Jats and Meds offered fierce, sustained resistance. Battles like Kikan resulted in crushing defeats for the Arabs, forcing Caliphs to abandon expeditions for decades due to heavy losses and lack of permanent gains.

Limited lasting impact. Muhammad bin Qasim's early 8th-century invasion of Sindh, though brutal and initially successful in capturing Debal, Nerun, and Multan, proved ephemeral. His conquests were quickly reversed by Hindu resurgence, leaving only small, vulnerable Arab principalities by the 10th century, a testament to the strength and resilience of the native resistance.

2. Mahmud of Ghazni Unleashed Unprecedented Barbarism and Iconoclasm

Should I consent to such a measure, my name would be handed down to posterity as ‘Mahmud the idol-seller’ whereas I desire to be known as ‘Mahmud the idol-destroyer’.

Holy war motivation. Mahmud of Ghazni, the first sultan of Ghazni, vowed to undertake a holy war against Hind every year, driven by religious piety and the promise of immense wealth. Unlike earlier Arab raiders, he aimed for deep, destructive incursions into mainland India, viewing it as a land of infidels ripe for plunder and conversion.

Systematic destruction. Mahmud's seventeen expeditions between 1000 and 1027 targeted wealthy cities and sacred Hindu sites across northern India. His campaigns were marked by:

• Wholesale massacres of civilians
• Industrial-scale slave-taking
• Ruthless demolition of temples (e.g., Thaneshwar, Mathura, Kanauj, Somanatha)
• Smashing of idols and desecration of holy sites

Legacy of terror. While Mahmud did not establish a lasting empire in India, his raids introduced a new level of savagery and religious fanaticism previously unknown. His destruction of the Somanatha Temple in 1026 became a legendary act of piety in the Muslim world, immortalizing him as a champion of Islam and inspiring future invaders.

3. Hindu Kingdoms Suffered from Disunity and Strategic Blind Spots

The Hindus had allowed their strength to be wasted in internal division and war … they had failed to organize their forces for the protection of their frontiers and their capitals, their wealth and their freedom...

Internal conflicts. By the 10th century, the 'Aryavarta Consciousness' of unified defense had waned among Hindu kingdoms. Major empires like the Rashtrakutas, Palas, and Pratiharas were in decline or engaged in internecine warfare, leaving frontiers vulnerable and preventing a united front against external threats.

Strategic naivete. Hindu rulers often adhered to traditional codes of warfare that were ill-suited against the unscrupulous tactics of Turkish invaders. They frequently underestimated the enemy's ruthlessness and failed to capitalize on victories, allowing defeated Muslim armies to regroup and return.

Betrayal and complacency. Instances of betrayal by Hindu chieftains and ministers, coupled with complacency born from past successes against earlier invaders, weakened defenses at critical moments. This lack of foresight and unity extracted a terrible civilizational cost, paving the way for deeper penetration by the invaders.

4. Muhammad of Ghori's Treachery Paved the Way for Turkish Rule

The defeat of Prithviraja in the second battle of Tarain not only destroyed the imperial power of the Chahamanas, but also brought disaster on the whole of Hindustan.

Early setbacks. Muhammad of Ghori, seeking to emulate Mahmud, initially faced significant defeats, including a humiliating rout by the Chalukyas of Gujarat led by a young boy, Mularaja II, in 1178. These losses highlighted the continued strength of Hindu resistance when united.

Strategic shift and treachery. After consolidating power in the northwest (Peshawar, Sialkot, Lahore), Ghori confronted the mighty Prithviraja Chahamana. Defeated in the First Battle of Tarain (1191), Ghori returned the following year with a larger army and employed deceit, feigning a truce to launch a surprise attack in the Second Battle of Tarain (1192).

Conquest of key centers. Ghori's victory at Tarain was a turning point, leading to the death of Prithviraja and the subsequent capture of Ajmer and Delhi. His general, Qutub-ud-din Aibak, extended conquests to Kanauj and Varanasi, marking the irreversible loss of major Hindu power centers in northern India and setting the stage for permanent Muslim rule.

5. The First Sultanate in Delhi Was Founded by a Turkish Slave

By deliberately sundering all ties with Ghazni, Qutub-ud-din Aibak had near-permanently disconnected Ghazni’s overlordship of northern India.

Rise of Aibak. Qutub-ud-din Aibak, a slave of Muhammad of Ghori, rose through the ranks due to his military prowess and loyalty. After Ghori's assassination in 1206, Aibak seized power in Lahore, establishing himself as the ruler of Ghori's Indian territories.

Establishing Delhi as capital. Aibak wisely shifted the center of power from Lahore to Delhi, recognizing its strategic importance and the need to distance himself from the volatile politics of Ghazni and Central Asia. This move laid the foundation for Delhi as the enduring seat of Muslim power in India.

Limited consolidation. Despite his role as founder, Aibak's reign was short and marked by instability. He faced challenges from rival Turkish generals and Hindu rulers who quickly reclaimed territories lost during Ghori's invasions. His legacy is primarily the establishment of the Delhi Sultanate and the symbolic shift of power to Delhi.

6. Iltutmish Consolidated Power Amidst Mongol Threat and Hindu Uprisings

Delhi was thus saved. Had he chosen a different course, the Sultanate of Delhi would have been finished in its infancy.

Slave of a slave. Shams-ud-din Iltutmish, a slave and son-in-law of Aibak, ascended the throne in 1211 after a brief period of chaos. He faced immediate challenges from rival Turkish contenders like Taj-ud-din Yildiz and Nasir-ud-din Qubachah, whom he eventually defeated, consolidating control over the core territories.

Navigating the Mongol storm. Iltutmish's most crucial decision was his refusal to grant asylum to Jalal-ad-din Mangbarni, the fugitive Khwarezmian prince pursued by Genghis Khan. This shrewd diplomatic maneuver averted a potentially devastating Mongol invasion, saving the nascent Delhi Sultanate from certain destruction.

Persistent Hindu resistance. Despite consolidating Turkish power, Iltutmish faced continuous uprisings from Hindu kingdoms, particularly in Rajputana. While he recaptured some forts like Ranthambhor and Mandor, he suffered defeats elsewhere and could not establish absolute control, often having to accept Hindu rulers as vassals. His reign also saw the brutal destruction of major temples like Mahakala in Ujjain.

7. The Slave Dynasty Suffered Decades of Bloody Internal Strife

The throne of the Delhi Sultanate would not tolerate a woman, notwithstanding sultan Iltutmish’s nomination.

Succession crisis. Iltutmish's death in 1236 plunged the Sultanate into a period of intense instability and internal conflict. His nominated successor, his daughter Razia Sultan, faced immediate opposition from the powerful Turkish nobility who resented being ruled by a woman.

Puppet rulers and assassinations. The period between 1236 and 1266 saw a rapid succession of weak rulers, often puppets of powerful factions within the Turkish nobility known as 'The Forty' (Chahalgani). This era was marked by:

• Palace intrigues and power struggles
• Frequent assassinations of sultans (e.g., Rukn-ud-din Firoz, Muiz-ud-din Bahram, Ala-ud-din Masud)
• Erosion of central authority
• Increased vulnerability to external threats (like Mongol raids on Lahore)

Rise of Balban. Amidst this chaos, Ghiyas-ud-din Balban, a prominent member and eventual leader of 'The Forty', shrewdly navigated the political landscape. He served as viceroy under the weak Sultan Nasir-ud-din Mahmud, consolidating his own power before eventually usurping the throne in 1266.

8. Balban Restored Despotic Authority Through Ruthless 'Blood and Iron'

Balban... employed his extraordinary energy and will-power to perpetuate a racial polity which, in, its ultimate form, merged with his absolutism.

Asserting royal power. Having witnessed the degradation of the sultan's authority, Balban, upon becoming ruler, implemented a policy of 'blood and iron' to restore the monarchy's prestige and absolute power. He emphasized the divine nature of kingship and adopted elaborate Persian court rituals to inspire awe and fear.

Racial supremacy. Balban held a strong belief in the racial superiority of Turks and systematically excluded non-Turkic Muslims, particularly Indian converts, from positions of power. His administration was designed to maintain the political dominance of the Turkic elite, viewing them as the chosen race destined to rule.

Centralized despotism. Balban focused on strengthening the central government and military rather than territorial expansion. He established a formidable spy network to monitor officials and suppressed dissent ruthlessly, ensuring that all authority flowed directly from the sultan, a stark contrast to the fragmented power structure of the preceding decades.

9. Balban Purged Turkish Nobility and Suppressed Hindu Resistance Brutally

On either side of the principal bazaar, in a street more than two miles in length, a row of stakes was set up and the adherents of Tughril were impaled upon them.

Crushing the Forty. Balban systematically dismantled the power of 'The Forty', the group of Turkish nobles who had controlled the Sultanate for years. He used severe punishments, including public flogging, execution, and poisoning, for even minor offenses, eliminating rivals and consolidating his personal authority.

Brutal suppression of rebels. Balban launched savage campaigns to suppress Hindu resistance and reassert control over rebellious territories. The Mewatis near Delhi and rebels in the Ganga-Jamuna Doab faced genocidal violence, with entire villages massacred and forests cleared to prevent future uprisings.

Vengeance in Bengal. When his governor in Bengal, Tughril, declared independence, Balban personally led a massive expedition. After capturing Tughril, Balban inflicted horrific punishments on his followers in Lakhnavati, including mass impalement, demonstrating his extreme ruthlessness to deter future challenges.

10. The Slave Dynasty Ended in Debauchery, Ushering in the Khaljis

By the time he had turned eighteen, Kaiquabad had thoroughly transformed Balban’s court into a vast sanctuary of vice and depravity.

Succession failure. Balban's death in 1287 led to a final, swift decline of the Slave dynasty. His chosen successor, his grandson Kai Khusrav, was sidelined by a powerful courtier, Malik Fakhruddin, who installed the young and inexperienced Kaiquabad, Balban's other grandson, as sultan.

Rapid moral decay. Raised under strict discipline by Balban, Kaiquabad quickly abandoned all restraint upon gaining the throne. His court became notorious for debauchery, wine, and pleasure, leading to the complete neglect of administration and the collapse of Balban's carefully constructed system of control and espionage.

Rise of the Khaljis. As Kaiquabad's health deteriorated due to his excesses, political power fell into the hands of ambitious figures like Nizam-ud-din. The resulting power vacuum and the perceived weakness of the Turkic ruling class created an opportunity for a new group, the Khaljis, led by Jalal-ud-din Firoz Khalji, the Minister of War, to seize control, ending the rule of the Mamluk Slave dynasty in 1290.

Last updated: May 22, 2025