JFK's Forgotten Crisis

1. JFK's Dual Crises: Cuba and India

Kennedy “wondered aloud which crisis would be the more significant in the long run.”

Global Challenges. In the fall of 1962, President John F. Kennedy faced two monumental international crises simultaneously: the Cuban Missile Crisis and the Sino-Indian War. While the Cuban crisis threatened nuclear annihilation, the Chinese invasion of India risked destabilizing Asia and potentially drawing the United States into a large-scale conflict with China. Kennedy recognized the gravity of both situations, understanding that each could have far-reaching and lasting consequences on the global order.

Resource Allocation. The Kennedy administration had to balance its attention and resources between these two critical regions. The Cuban Missile Crisis understandably took precedence, given the immediate threat to American security. However, Kennedy understood the importance of addressing the situation in India to prevent further escalation and maintain stability in Asia.

Leadership Under Pressure. Kennedy's ability to manage these concurrent crises demonstrated his leadership under immense pressure. He navigated the delicate balance between diplomacy and military readiness, ultimately averting nuclear war in Cuba and providing crucial support to India while preventing a wider conflict.

2. The Forgotten Sino-Indian War's Origins

The CIA operation helped persuade Chinese leader Mao Zedong to invade India in October 1962, an invasion that led the United States and China to the brink of war and began a Sino-India rivalry that continues today.

Complex Causation. The Sino-Indian War of 1962 was not a sudden event but the culmination of several factors, including unresolved border disputes, the Tibetan issue, and differing geopolitical visions. China's perception of India as a rival for influence in Asia, coupled with its concerns about Indian support for Tibetan separatism, contributed to the escalating tensions. The CIA's covert operations in Tibet further fueled Mao's suspicions and hardened his resolve to assert China's dominance.

Border Disputes. The primary source of conflict was the disputed border between India and China, particularly in the Aksai Chin region and the McMahon Line. China's construction of a strategic highway through Aksai Chin, territory claimed by India, heightened tensions and led to military clashes. Nehru's "Forward Policy," aimed at asserting Indian control over disputed areas, further aggravated the situation.

Intelligence Failures. Miscalculations and intelligence failures on both sides also played a role. India underestimated China's military capabilities and resolve, while China misjudged India's willingness to resist its territorial claims. These misperceptions contributed to the escalation of the conflict and the eventual outbreak of war.

3. Eisenhower's South Asia Strategy: Pakistan Over India

Yet as the leaders of the two largest democracies in the world, both Ike and Nehru knew they needed to work together despite their differences.

Cold War Alliances. During the Eisenhower administration, the United States prioritized its relationship with Pakistan over India due to Cold War considerations. Pakistan's membership in anti-communist alliances like CENTO and SEATO made it a valuable strategic partner in containing Soviet influence in Asia. This alignment led to significant military and economic aid to Pakistan, while India's non-aligned stance was viewed with suspicion.

Dulles Brothers' Influence. Secretary of State John Foster Dulles and CIA Director Allen Dulles played a key role in shaping American policy towards South Asia. Their strong anti-communist views and preference for military alliances led them to favor Pakistan, which was seen as a reliable ally in the fight against communism. This approach strained relations with India, which sought to maintain its neutrality in the Cold War.

Nehru's Non-Alignment. Prime Minister Jawaharlal Nehru's policy of non-alignment, while intended to promote India's independence and leadership in the developing world, was often viewed with skepticism in Washington. American policymakers saw India's neutrality as a sign of weakness or even tacit support for communism, further widening the divide between the two countries.

4. The CIA's Covert Tibetan Operations

The United States from 1957 until the early 1970s clandestinely supported the Tibetan people in their resistance to Chinese occupation.

Supporting Resistance. From the late 1950s to the early 1970s, the CIA conducted a covert operation to support Tibetan resistance fighters against Chinese occupation. This involved training Tibetan guerrillas in Colorado, providing them with weapons and supplies, and air-dropping them back into Tibet from bases in Pakistan. The goal was to destabilize Chinese control over Tibet and gather intelligence on the communist regime.

Pakistani Complicity. Pakistan played a crucial role in the CIA's Tibetan operations, allowing the agency to use its air bases for training and launching missions into Tibet. This cooperation was driven by Pakistan's desire to counter Indian influence in the region and its growing alignment with China. However, the Pakistani government's support for the CIA's activities was often ambivalent, as it sought to balance its relationship with the United States and its growing ties with China.

Ethical Considerations. The CIA's covert operations in Tibet raised ethical questions about the use of clandestine methods to interfere in the internal affairs of another country. While the United States sought to support the Tibetan people's right to self-determination, its actions also risked escalating tensions with China and undermining regional stability. The long-term impact of these operations on the Tibetan people and the Sino-Indian relationship remains a subject of debate.

5. Galbraith's Skepticism and Influence on JFK

This sounds like the Rover Boys at loose ends.

Dissenting Voice. John Kenneth Galbraith, Kennedy's ambassador to India, was a vocal critic of the CIA's covert operations in Tibet. He viewed the operations as reckless, ineffective, and likely to damage American relations with India. Galbraith's skepticism stemmed from his deep understanding of Indian politics and his belief that the United States should prioritize its relationship with India over its covert activities in Tibet.

Direct Access. Galbraith's close relationship with Kennedy allowed him to directly influence the president's thinking on foreign policy. He used his access to voice his concerns about the CIA's operations and advocate for a more nuanced approach to South Asia. While Galbraith was not always successful in changing Kennedy's mind, his dissenting voice played a crucial role in shaping the administration's policies.

Balancing Act. Kennedy valued Galbraith's insights and trusted his judgment, but he also recognized the importance of maintaining a strong intelligence capability. As a result, the administration sought to balance Galbraith's concerns with the CIA's operational needs, leading to a complex and often contradictory approach to the Tibetan issue.

6. Jackie Kennedy's Soft Power Diplomacy

Jackie made you proud to be an American, and that feeling translates into votes.

Cultural Ambassador. Jacqueline Kennedy's visit to India and Pakistan in 1962 was a significant diplomatic event that helped improve relations between the United States and the two South Asian nations. Her charm, grace, and genuine interest in the local cultures made her a popular figure in both countries. The First Lady's trip was carefully orchestrated to showcase American goodwill and counter negative perceptions of American foreign policy.

Symbolic Gestures. Mrs. Kennedy's visit included several symbolic gestures aimed at fostering goodwill and understanding. She visited historical sites, met with local leaders, and engaged with ordinary citizens, demonstrating her respect for Indian and Pakistani cultures. Her iconic photograph in front of the Taj Mahal became a symbol of American friendship and admiration for India's rich heritage.

Positive Impact. The First Lady's trip had a positive impact on American relations with both India and Pakistan. It helped to repair some of the damage caused by the Goa incident and the perceived American tilt towards Pakistan. Her visit also boosted American prestige in the region and strengthened ties between the United States and the two South Asian nations.

7. Miscalculations and Missed Opportunities

America has knowingly elected for war, with Britain following.

Intelligence Failures. The Korean War intelligence failures had a lasting impact on American thinking about China. Americans had vivid memories of how China had surprised them in 1950, defeating an American war hero and almost driving UN forces out of Korea. When China attacked India in 1962, JFK and other Americans assumed the worst: China would be unstoppable.

Strategic Missteps. The Kennedy administration's decision to prioritize covert operations in Tibet over building a strong relationship with India was a strategic misstep. While the CIA's activities may have provided some intelligence benefits, they also alienated India and contributed to the escalating tensions with China. A more balanced approach, focused on diplomacy and economic cooperation, might have yielded better results in the long run.

Lost Opportunities. The failure to capitalize on the opportunity created by the Sino-Indian War to forge a closer strategic partnership with India was a missed opportunity. The United States could have used its influence to promote a resolution of the Kashmir dispute and build a stronger alliance with India against China. Instead, the administration's focus on Pakistan and its reluctance to challenge Ayub Khan's regime limited its ability to achieve its goals in South Asia.

8. The Enduring Legacy of the 1962 War

The alliance system that dominates Asian politics—pitting China and Pakistan as allies against India, with the United States tilting toward India—was created in the 1962 crisis.

Shifting Alliances. The Sino-Indian War of 1962 had a profound and lasting impact on the geopolitical landscape of Asia. The war led to a realignment of alliances, with China and Pakistan forging a closer relationship and India seeking closer ties with the United States and the Soviet Union. This triangular relationship continues to shape Asian politics today.

Arms Race. The war also triggered an arms race in South Asia, with India embarking on a military buildup to counter China's growing power. This led to the development of nuclear weapons by both India and Pakistan, further increasing tensions in the region. The unresolved border dispute between India and China remains a source of instability and potential conflict.

Continuing Tensions. More than half a century after the war, tensions between India and China persist. Cross-border incursions and military standoffs continue to occur, highlighting the unresolved nature of the border dispute. The legacy of the 1962 war continues to influence the relationship between the two Asian giants and shape the dynamics of regional security.

Last updated: February 6, 2025