Lectures on the Will to Know

1. The Will to Know: A Force Beyond Simple Desire

The will to know is the title I would like to give to this year’s lectures. To tell the truth, I think I could also have given this title to most of the historical analyses I have carried out up until now.

More than curiosity. Foucault posits that the "will to know" is not a passive desire for information, but an active force that shapes our understanding of the world. It's a driving power that goes beyond simple curiosity or a thirst for knowledge. This will is a complex interplay of forces, not a singular, unified drive.

Morphology of the will. Foucault suggests that his analyses, both past and future, can be seen as "fragments for a morphology of the will to know." This implies a study of the various forms and expressions of this will throughout history, rather than a search for its singular origin or essence. He aims to explore how this will manifests in different contexts, from economic processes to the organization of sexuality.

Beyond philosophical discourse. Foucault notes that philosophical discourse often elides the desire to know, treating it as a given rather than a subject of inquiry. He seeks to uncover the historical and social forces that shape this will, rather than relying on philosophical abstractions. This will to know is not a natural, inherent human trait, but a historical construct.

2. Truth as a Historical Construct, Not a Given

In short, it is a matter of seeing what real struggles and relations of domination are involved in the will to truth.

Truth is not neutral. Foucault argues that the "will to truth" is not a neutral pursuit of objective reality, but a historical and social construct deeply intertwined with power relations. The system of truth and falsity is not a given, but a product of specific historical forces and struggles.

Exclusion and domination. The will to truth, like other systems of exclusion (madness/reason, prohibition), is not a universal or timeless concept. It is a historical phenomenon that is constantly modified and reactivated by institutional networks. This will to truth is not just about choosing truth over falsity, but about imposing a system of truth and falsity itself.

Violence of truth. Foucault aims to reveal the "violence" inherent in the system of truth and falsity. He seeks to show that the will to truth is not a benign pursuit of knowledge, but a force that shapes and constrains discourse and practices, often through domination and exclusion. The system of truth and falsity is not a neutral framework, but a site of struggle and power.

3. The Sophists: Manipulators of Discourse, Not Seekers of Truth

...as for sophistic, it is only an apparent philosophy without reality ( ... ē de sophistik ē phainomen ē , ousa d’ou ).

Excluded from philosophy. Foucault highlights Aristotle's exclusion of the Sophists from the realm of true philosophy. Aristotle characterizes sophistic as "apparent wisdom without reality," positioning it as a deceptive practice that manipulates discourse for personal gain rather than seeking genuine knowledge.

Sophism as technique. Foucault emphasizes that Aristotle focuses on the techniques of sophism rather than the figures of the Sophists themselves. He analyzes sophistical arguments as manipulations of the materiality of words, rather than as errors in reasoning. This approach shifts the focus from the Sophists' intentions to the mechanics of their discourse.

Materiality of words. Sophistics, according to Foucault, manipulates the materiality of words, exploiting their ambiguity, scarcity, and the way they are strung together. Sophists are not concerned with the truth of propositions, but with the power of words to persuade and dominate. They operate in the realm of semblance, not of genuine reasoning.

4. The Materiality of Discourse: Beyond Logic and Meaning

In fact, since it is not possible to bring the things themselves into the discussion, but instead of the things we have to make use of their names as symbols, we suppose that what happens in the names happens in the things as well...

Words as things. Foucault argues that sophism arises from the manipulation of words as material objects, rather than as transparent vehicles of meaning. The Sophists exploit the gap between words and things, using the scarcity and ambiguity of language to create illusions of reasoning.

Beyond the concept. Sophistical arguments do not operate at the level of concepts or logical necessity, but at the level of the materiality of the statement itself. They manipulate the physical properties of words, their sounds, their written forms, and their sequence in discourse.

Sophism as inverted reasoning. Foucault describes sophism as the "inverted image of reasoning." Where reasoning relies on agreed-upon premises and logical necessity, sophism exploits the material identity of words, the chance of their superimposition, and the manipulation of their sequence. It is not a defective form of reasoning, but a different kind of operation altogether.

5. Truth as a Social Construct: Power, Ritual, and Exclusion

Truth, I should say rather, the system of truth and falsity, will have revealed the face it turned away from us for so long and which is that of its violence.

Truth is not inherent. Foucault emphasizes that truth is not a pre-existing entity waiting to be discovered, but a social construct that is produced and maintained through specific practices and institutions. The will to truth is not a neutral pursuit of knowledge, but a force that shapes and constrains discourse.

Truth and power. The assertion of truth is always linked to the exercise of power. In archaic Greece, the truth was not a matter of objective facts, but of a challenge to confront a fearsome force. In classical Greece, the truth became linked to the authority of the judge and the power of the state.

Exclusion as a mechanism. The system of truth and falsity is not just about identifying what is true, but about excluding what is deemed false or dangerous. The Sophists, with their manipulation of discourse, were excluded from the realm of true philosophy, and this exclusion was a key moment in the formation of Western thought.

6. From Ordeal to Knowledge: A Shift in the Assertion of Truth

The truth is not so much a law binding men as a force which may be unleashed against them.

Truth as a force. In archaic Greece, truth was not a matter of objective facts, but a force that could be unleashed against individuals. The oath was not a statement of truth, but a challenge to confront this force, a test of one's willingness to face the unknown.

From ordeal to testimony. Foucault traces a shift from the ordeal, where truth was revealed through a test of strength or endurance, to the testimony, where truth is established through the observation and reporting of facts. This shift marks a transition from a truth based on power to a truth based on knowledge.

The role of the witness. The emergence of the witness as a figure of truth is a key development in the history of Western thought. The witness is not a participant in the dispute, but a third party who is supposed to report what they have seen or heard. This shift marks a move towards a more objective and verifiable form of truth.

7. Money, Law, and the Order of the World: Intertwined Systems

The truth is therefore the final cause of philosophy.

Money as a social regulator. Foucault argues that money was not initially a purely economic instrument, but a social regulator that was intertwined with religious and political practices. It was a means of distributing power and maintaining social order, not just a medium of exchange.

Law as a framework for truth. The emergence of written law (nomos) is linked to the desire for a just order (dikaion) that reflects the order of the world. Law is not just a set of rules, but a framework for establishing truth and maintaining social harmony.

Interdependence of systems. Foucault emphasizes the interdependence of money, law, and knowledge in the formation of Greek society. These systems are not separate entities, but are intertwined in a complex web of power relations and social practices. The truth is not a separate entity, but is produced and maintained through these systems.

8. Oedipus: A Tragedy of Knowledge, Not Just Fate

In short, the sophism is pseudo reasoning ( faux raisonnement ) (and not merely faulty reasoning ( raisonnement faux )).

Oedipus as a figure of knowledge. Foucault interprets the tragedy of Oedipus not as a story of fate or destiny, but as a drama about the nature of knowledge and its relationship to power. Oedipus is not just a victim of circumstance, but a figure who embodies a particular type of knowledge.

The limits of tyrannical knowledge. Oedipus's knowledge, which is based on his ability to solve riddles and his reliance on his own judgment, is ultimately shown to be limited and flawed. His pursuit of truth leads to his own destruction, revealing the dangers of a knowledge that is not grounded in humility and respect for the limits of human understanding.

The power of testimony. The tragedy of Oedipus highlights the importance of testimony and the power of the witness. The truth is not revealed through divine pronouncements or philosophical speculation, but through the accounts of ordinary people who have seen and heard what happened. This emphasis on testimony marks a shift towards a more empirical and verifiable form of truth.

Last updated: January 14, 2025