Metaphysics

1. All Humans Naturally Desire Knowledge

ALL men by nature desire to know.

Innate Curiosity. Aristotle posits that the pursuit of knowledge is not merely a learned behavior but an inherent aspect of human nature. This intrinsic desire is evident in our enjoyment of sensory experiences, particularly sight, which provides us with information and distinctions about the world around us.

Senses as Tools. Our senses, especially sight, are not just for practical purposes but are valued for their ability to reveal differences and provide understanding. This inherent drive to understand is what separates humans from other animals, who primarily rely on appearances and memories.

Experience and Art. While animals live by appearances and memories, humans also live by art and reasonings. Experience, derived from memory, leads to art when universal judgments are formed from individual observations. This transition from individual instances to universal understanding is a key step in the pursuit of knowledge.

2. Wisdom Lies in Understanding First Causes and Principles

Clearly then Wisdom is knowledge about certain principles and causes.

Defining Wisdom. Wisdom is not simply the accumulation of facts but a deep understanding of the underlying principles and causes that govern the world. It involves knowing the 'why' behind things, not just the 'what'.

Characteristics of the Wise:

• Possesses universal knowledge, understanding the big picture.
• Capable of learning difficult things, going beyond common sense.
• Exact in their knowledge and able to teach the causes of things.
• Values knowledge for its own sake, not just for its practical results.
• Able to command, not just obey, demonstrating a comprehensive understanding.

Pursuit of First Principles. The pursuit of wisdom is the pursuit of first principles and causes. This pursuit is driven by wonder and a desire to escape ignorance, not by utilitarian goals. It is a free science, sought for its own sake, and is considered the most divine and honorable of all sciences.

3. Early Philosophers Sought Material Causes, Overlooking Others

Of the first philosophers, then, most thought the principles which were of the nature of matter were the only principles of all things.

Materialistic Beginnings. The earliest philosophers primarily focused on material causes, identifying elements like water, air, or fire as the fundamental principles of all things. Thales believed water was the origin, Anaximenes and Diogenes favored air, and Heraclitus championed fire.

Limitations of Materialism. While acknowledging the importance of material causes, Aristotle points out that these early thinkers often neglected other crucial aspects, such as the source of change or the purpose behind existence. They failed to explain why and how these elements transformed and interacted.

Emergence of Reason. Anaxagoras introduced the concept of reason (nous) as the cause of order and arrangement in the universe, marking a shift towards recognizing a non-material, intelligent force at play. This was a significant step in understanding the complexity of the cosmos.

4. Wonder and Puzzles Drive Philosophical Inquiry

For it is owing to their wonder that men both now begin and at first began to philosophize.

The Genesis of Philosophy. Philosophy originates from a sense of wonder and puzzlement about the world. Initially, this wonder is directed towards obvious difficulties, but it gradually expands to encompass greater matters, such as the nature of the cosmos.

Myth and Wisdom. Even the love of myths can be seen as a form of philosophical inclination, as myths are composed of wonders. This suggests that the human fascination with the extraordinary is a stepping stone towards deeper understanding.

From Ignorance to Knowledge. The act of philosophizing is an attempt to escape from ignorance. It is a pursuit of knowledge for its own sake, not for any practical or utilitarian purpose. This disinterested pursuit is what defines philosophy as a free and independent science.

5. Truth is Attained Through Collective Effort and Grateful Acknowledgment

…while individually we contribute little or nothing to the truth, by the union of all a considerable amount is amassed.

Collaborative Pursuit. The attainment of truth is a challenging endeavor, with no single individual capable of grasping it entirely. However, through the combined efforts of many, each contributing their partial insights, a more complete understanding can be achieved.

Building on Predecessors. It is essential to acknowledge and appreciate the contributions of those who came before, even if their views seem superficial. These thinkers laid the groundwork for subsequent advancements, much like Phrynis paved the way for Timotheus in lyric poetry.

Truth as the Goal. Philosophy is fundamentally concerned with the pursuit of truth. Theoretical knowledge aims at truth, while practical knowledge aims at action. Understanding the cause of a truth is essential for truly knowing it, and the principles of eternal things are the most true, as they are the cause of other truths.

6. The First Principle and Causes are Neither Infinite Nor Infinitely Varied

For neither can one thing proceed from another, as from matter, ad infinitum…

Finite Series. The causes of things cannot extend infinitely in a series. This applies to material causes, sources of movement, final causes, and essences. There must be a first cause that initiates the chain.

The Necessity of a First Cause:

• Without a first cause, there is no cause at all.
• Infinite processes eliminate the Good, as there is no ultimate purpose.
• Essences cannot be reduced to infinitely fuller definitions, as knowledge requires unanalyzable terms.

Eternal and Non-Eternal. The first cause, being eternal, cannot be destroyed. Processes of becoming cannot be infinite in the upward direction, and the final cause must be an end that is not for the sake of something else.

7. Difficulties in Thought Reflect Knots in the Object of Inquiry

But the difficulty of our thinking points to a 'knot' in the object…

Difficulties as Clues. When our thinking encounters difficulties, it indicates a corresponding complexity or 'knot' in the subject matter itself. Overcoming these difficulties is essential for intellectual progress.

The Importance of Stating Difficulties:

• It helps to clarify the goal of inquiry.
• It allows one to assess whether the goal has been achieved.
• It provides a better position for judging contending arguments.

Untying the Knot. Addressing difficulties requires a thorough examination of various perspectives and arguments. This process is akin to untying a knot, where understanding the entanglement is necessary for finding a solution.

8. Being Has Many Senses, All Related to Substance

There are many senses in which a thing may be said to 'be', but all that 'is' is related to one central point…

Unified Concept. While the term 'being' has multiple meanings, they are all interconnected and related to a central concept. This is similar to how 'healthy' relates to health, with different things being called healthy because they preserve, produce, or indicate health.

Substance as Primary. The various senses of 'being' ultimately refer back to substance. Some things are said to be because they are substances, while others are affections, processes, or qualities of substance.

One Science of Being. Just as there is one science that deals with all healthy things, there is one science that studies being qua being. This science primarily focuses on substance, as it is the foundation upon which all other categories depend.

9. Contradictory Statements Cannot be Simultaneously True

It is, that the same attribute cannot at the same time belong and not belong to the same subject and in the same respect…

The Most Certain Principle. The principle that contradictory statements cannot both be true at the same time is the most certain of all principles. It is impossible for anyone to genuinely believe that the same thing can both be and not be.

Negative Demonstration. While this principle cannot be directly demonstrated, its impossibility can be proven negatively by showing the absurd consequences that follow from denying it. This requires the opponent to make a meaningful statement.

Consequences of Denial:

• It eliminates substance and essence, reducing all attributes to accidents.
• It leads to the conclusion that all things are one, blurring all distinctions.
• It makes rational discourse impossible, as words lose their meaning.

10. Nature is a Source of Movement and Change

'Nature' means the primary material of which any natural object consists or out of which it is made…

Multiple Senses of Nature. The term 'nature' encompasses various aspects, including the genesis of growing things, the immanent source of growth, the origin of movement, and the primary material of natural objects. It also refers to the essence of natural objects.

Nature as Essence. Nature is primarily the essence of things that have a source of movement within themselves. Matter is considered nature because it can receive this movement, and processes of becoming are nature because they proceed from this source.

The Role of Form. While the material is important, a thing does not fully possess its nature until it has its form or shape. The complete entity, comprising both matter and form, exists by nature, as seen in animals and their parts.

11. The One Has Many Meanings, Serving as a Measure of All Things

Evidently, then, these thinkers also consider that number is the principle both as matter for things and as forming both their modifications and their permanent states…

Various Interpretations. The concept of 'one' can refer to accidental unity, natural unity (continuity), or unity of definition. Each of these interpretations provides a different lens through which to understand the fundamental nature of existence.

The One as a Measure:

• The essence of 'one' is to be a beginning of number, a primary measure.
• It serves as the foundation for knowledge within each category.
• The 'one' is not uniform across all categories, varying from quarter-tones in music to letters in speech.

Unity and Being. Unity and being are deeply intertwined, with the number of species of being mirroring the species of unity. Investigating the essence of these concepts is a central task of philosophy.

12. Actuality is Prior to Potency in Substance and Knowledge

For the end of theoretical knowledge is truth, while that of practical knowledge is action…

Actuality Defines Potency. Actuality is prior to potency in definition, time, and substance. Potency is understood through its potential to become actual, and knowledge of actuality precedes knowledge of potency.

Eternal Actuality. Eternal things exist actually, not potentially. This is because potency implies the possibility of not being, which is incompatible with the eternal nature of first principles.

The Good as Actuality. Actuality is better and more valuable than potency. The good, which is the end or actuality, is the driving force behind all processes. This is why the divine thought, being the most excellent, is always in a state of actuality.

Last updated: February 13, 2025