Modern Times

1. Relativism's Rise: The Unsettling of Absolutes

At the beginning of the 1920s the belief began to circulate, for the first time at a popular level, that there were no longer any absolutes: of time and space, of good and evil, of knowledge, above all of value.

Einstein's Relativity. The confirmation of Einstein's theory of relativity in 1919, with its dethroning of absolute time and space, inadvertently fueled a sense of unease and uncertainty. This scientific revolution, though intended to describe the physical world, was misinterpreted by many as a validation of moral relativism, the idea that there are no objective standards of right and wrong.

Freud's Psychoanalysis. Simultaneously, Freud's psychoanalysis gained widespread popularity, challenging traditional notions of morality and the self. His emphasis on the unconscious, the power of sexual drives, and the subjective nature of guilt undermined the Judeo-Christian ethic of personal responsibility and duty.

The Confusion of Relativity and Relativism. The public, struggling to grasp the complexities of Einstein's theory, mistakenly conflated relativity with relativism, leading to a widespread belief that all values were subjective and that there were no longer any universal truths. This created a sense of moral anarchy, a feeling that the world was adrift from its traditional moorings.

2. The Lure of Despotic Utopias: Lenin and the Bolshevik Model

He is the only one of us who lives revolution twenty-four hours a day.

Lenin's Single-Mindedness. Lenin, a man of intense focus and unwavering will, dedicated his life to the pursuit of revolution. He was a master organizer, a skilled manipulator of ideas, and a ruthless practitioner of power. His approach was cerebral rather than emotional, and he saw the world in terms of ideological alliances, not personal relationships.

Rejection of Traditional Values. Lenin was a passionate atheist who saw religion as a powerful enemy. He rejected traditional morality and believed that violence was an essential tool for achieving his revolutionary goals. He was a voluntarist, not a determinist, believing that revolutions were made by small groups of disciplined men responding to the will of a decisive leader.

The Bolshevik Party as a Vanguard Elite. Lenin created the Bolshevik party as a highly centralized, hierarchical organization of professional revolutionaries, who would bring "consciousness" to the proletariat from without. This concept, which was a departure from orthodox Marxism, was a key element in his seizure of power and the establishment of the Soviet state.

3. The Seeds of Fascism: Mussolini's Heretical Path

Instead of deluding the proletariat as to the possibility of eradicating all causes of bloodbaths, we wish to prepare it and accustom it to war for the day of the “greatest bloodbath of all”, when the two hostile classes will clash in the supreme trial.

Mussolini's Marxist Roots. Like Lenin, Mussolini began his political career as a Marxist, advocating revolutionary violence and the creation of a "vanguard minority" to lead the proletariat. He was influenced by Sorel's ideas of revolutionary syndicalism and shared Lenin's belief in the importance of a disciplined, hierarchical party.

The Shift to Nationalism. The Great War caused Mussolini to abandon internationalism and embrace nationalism. He became a master of mass mobilization, using myth, symbolism, and propaganda to create a sense of national unity and purpose.

Common Ground with Lenin. Despite their differences, Lenin and Mussolini shared a number of key characteristics: opposition to bourgeois parliaments, a belief in a centralized party, a leadership of professional revolutionaries, and a willingness to use violence to achieve their goals. Both were heretics of Marxism, and their actions were to have a profound impact on the course of the twentieth century.

4. The Treaty of Versailles: A Peace Built on Sand

You asked us for peace. We are disposed to grant it to you.

A Flawed Settlement. The Treaty of Versailles, intended to create a lasting peace after the First World War, was deeply flawed. It was based on a mixture of idealism and Realpolitik, and it failed to address the underlying causes of the conflict.

The Failure of Self-Determination. The principle of self-determination, which was supposed to guide the redrawing of European borders, was applied inconsistently and often contradicted by secret treaties and the desire to reward the victors and punish the vanquished. This created a host of new ethnic minorities and fueled resentment and irredentism.

Economic Instability. The treaty imposed harsh reparations on Germany, which crippled its economy and led to hyperinflation. The insistence on war debts further destabilized the international financial system, creating a cycle of claims and counterclaims that undermined the spirit of cooperation.

5. The Global Reach of Instability: From Europe to Asia

We are witnesses of the greatest moment of summing-up in history, in the name of a new and unknown culture, which will be created by us, and which will also sweep us away.

The End of Old Empires. The collapse of the Austro-Hungarian, Russian, and Ottoman empires created a power vacuum in Central and Eastern Europe and the Middle East. This led to a rise in nationalism and irredentism, as various ethnic groups sought to create their own states.

The Spread of Self-Determination. The principle of self-determination, initially intended for Europe, began to spread to other parts of the world, challenging the legitimacy of colonial rule. This led to a growing sense of unrest and a desire for independence in many colonies.

The Rise of New Nationalisms. The war and its aftermath unleashed a wave of new nationalisms, both in Europe and in the colonies. These nationalisms were often based on ethnic or racial identity, and they were frequently accompanied by violence and intolerance. The world was becoming increasingly unstable, and the old order was rapidly disintegrating.

6. The Will to Power: Nietzsche's Prophecy and the Rise of Gangster-Statesmen

The greatest event of recent times – that “God is Dead”, that the belief in the Christian God is no longer tenable – is beginning to cast its first shadows over Europe.

Nietzsche's Vision. Nietzsche, a prophet of the modern age, foresaw the decline of religious belief and the rise of the "will to power" as the driving force of human behavior. He predicted that the vacuum left by the death of God would be filled by secular ideologies and that new kinds of messiahs, uninhibited by traditional morality, would emerge.

The Vacuum of Faith. The decline of religious belief, combined with the disorientation caused by relativity and psychoanalysis, created a moral vacuum in the early twentieth century. This vacuum was filled by secular ideologies, such as Marxism and fascism, which offered a sense of purpose and meaning in a world that seemed increasingly chaotic and meaningless.

The Rise of Gangster-Statesmen. The end of the old order, with its traditional moorings in faith and morality, created an opportunity for gangster-statesmen to emerge. These men, uninhibited by any moral constraints, were driven by a relentless will to power and a desire to control mankind.

7. The Perils of Social Engineering: From Russia to the World

War is the health of the state.

The Expansion of the State. The First World War led to a massive expansion of the state in all belligerent countries. Governments took control of industry, agriculture, and even the lives of their citizens. This expansion of state power, often justified in the name of national security or social progress, created a dangerous precedent for the future.

The Illusion of Control. The belief that the state could solve all social problems through planning and intervention became widespread. This led to a series of disastrous experiments in social engineering, from Lenin's collectivization of agriculture to the Nazi's racial policies.

The Destruction of Individual Liberty. The expansion of the state and the pursuit of utopian goals often came at the expense of individual liberty. The state, in its pursuit of collective goals, became increasingly ruthless in its treatment of its own citizens. The individual was reduced to a mere cog in the machine of the state.

8. The Fragility of Democracy: The Case of Weimar Germany

The existing world very antiquated, without ideas.

The Failure of Weimar. The Weimar Republic, established in Germany after the First World War, was a fragile experiment in democracy. It was undermined by economic instability, political extremism, and a deep-seated lack of faith in parliamentary government.

The Myth of the Stab in the Back. The German military, unwilling to accept responsibility for the defeat in the war, created the myth of the "stab in the back," blaming the civilian government and the Socialists for the country's misfortunes. This myth fueled resentment and undermined the legitimacy of the Weimar Republic.

The Rise of Extremism. The Weimar Republic was unable to satisfy the rising expectations of the German people. This created an opportunity for extremist groups, such as the Nazis, to gain support by offering simple solutions to complex problems and by appealing to the deep-seated fears and resentments of the German people.

9. The Allure of Totalitarianism: The Lure of Order in Chaos

The only remedy for Chinamen and for the rest of us is the change of hearts.

The Appeal of Order. In a world that seemed increasingly chaotic and uncertain, totalitarian ideologies offered a sense of order and purpose. They promised to create a new society, free from the perceived weaknesses and injustices of the old order.

The Rejection of Individualism. Totalitarian ideologies rejected the individualism and personal responsibility that were central to the Judeo-Christian ethic. They emphasized the collective over the individual, and they demanded absolute obedience to the state and its leaders.

The Promise of a New World. Totalitarian ideologies offered a vision of a new world, a utopian society in which all problems would be solved and all needs would be met. This promise, however, was always based on a denial of human nature and a willingness to use violence and terror to achieve its goals.

10. The Unintended Consequences of Good Intentions: The Road to Hell

Once lead this people into war and they’ll forget there ever was such a thing as tolerance …. The spirit of ruthless brutality will enter into every fibre of our national life.

The Perversion of Ideals. Many of the most destructive forces of the twentieth century were set in motion by well-intentioned people seeking to improve the world. The pursuit of utopian ideals often led to unintended consequences, including violence, oppression, and the destruction of individual liberty.

The Dangers of Collective Righteousness. Collective righteousness, the belief that one's own group or ideology is morally superior to all others, is a powerful and dangerous force. It can lead to intolerance, persecution, and even genocide.

The Importance of Individual Responsibility. The history of the twentieth century demonstrates the importance of individual responsibility and the dangers of surrendering one's conscience to the collective. The belief that one is acting in the name of a higher cause does not justify the use of violence or the violation of human rights.

11. The Power of Ideas: Shaping the 20th Century

The scientific genius impinges on humanity, for good or ill, far more than any statesman or warlord.

The Impact of Scientific Innovation. Great scientific innovators, such as Galileo, Newton, Darwin, and Einstein, have had a profound impact on human history. They have not only changed our understanding of the physical world but have also transformed our ideas about ourselves and our place in the universe.

The Unintended Consequences of Ideas. The impact of ideas is often unpredictable and far-reaching. Scientific discoveries, philosophical concepts, and political ideologies can have unintended consequences, both positive and negative, that shape the course of history.

The Responsibility of Intellectuals. Intellectuals, as the creators and disseminators of ideas, have a special responsibility to consider the potential consequences of their work. They must be aware of the power of ideas to shape human behavior and to influence the course of history.

12. The End of Old Europe: A World Adrift

All the horrors of all the ages were brought together, and not only armies but whole populations were thrust into the midst of them.

The Collapse of the Old Order. The First World War marked the end of the old European order, with its system of monarchies, empires, and traditional values. The war unleashed a wave of violence and instability that swept across the continent and beyond.

The Rise of New Powers. The war and its aftermath led to the rise of new powers, such as the United States and the Soviet Union, which challenged the traditional dominance of Europe. The world was becoming increasingly multipolar, and the old European system was no longer able to maintain its authority.

A World Adrift. The combination of scientific, philosophical, and political revolutions left the world adrift, without a clear sense of direction or purpose. The old certainties had been shattered, and the future seemed uncertain and unpredictable. The stage was set for a new era of conflict and change.

Last updated: January 14, 2025