The Moral Landscape

1. Science can determine moral truths by examining well-being

There are right and wrong answers to moral questions, whether or not we can always answer these questions in practice.

Science and morality converge. The traditional divide between facts and values is illusory. Just as science can determine what constitutes physical health, it can also investigate what promotes human flourishing and well-being. This approach doesn't reduce morality to simplistic formulas, but rather opens up a rich field of inquiry into the causes and conditions of human welfare.

Objective moral truths exist. While cultural differences and individual variations complicate moral questions, there are objectively better and worse ways for conscious creatures to experience the world. For example, a society that oppresses women or practices slavery is demonstrably worse in terms of aggregate human well-being than one that upholds human rights and individual freedoms.

• Morality is about the well-being of conscious creatures
• Scientific methods can investigate causes and conditions of well-being
• Cultural differences don't negate the existence of moral truths
• Extreme examples (e.g., universal suffering) clarify moral objectivity

2. The moral landscape: A space of possible experiences for conscious creatures

I hope to show that there must be right and wrong answers to questions of morality and values that potentially fall within the purview of science.

Visualizing moral possibilities. The moral landscape is a metaphor for understanding the range of possible experiences for conscious beings. It has peaks representing states of maximum well-being and valleys of deepest suffering. This model allows us to conceptualize moral progress as movement towards higher states of collective welfare.

Multiple peaks, objective differences. There may be multiple ways for societies to achieve high levels of well-being, represented by different peaks on the landscape. However, this doesn't negate the objective differences between states of flourishing and those of immense suffering. The goal of moral reasoning and scientific inquiry should be to navigate this landscape effectively.

• Peaks represent states of maximum well-being for conscious creatures
• Valleys represent states of greatest suffering and misery
• Multiple paths to well-being can exist (multiple peaks)
• Objective differences between states remain, despite complexity

3. Religious beliefs are not immune to scientific scrutiny

Consider the Catholic Church: an organization which advertises itself as the greatest force for good and as the only true bulwark against evil in the universe.

Examining religious claims. Religious beliefs, despite their cultural significance, are not exempt from rational scrutiny. When religious doctrines make claims about the nature of reality or prescribe behaviors, these can and should be evaluated based on their effects on human well-being. The history of religious institutions often reveals a disconnect between proclaimed ideals and actual consequences.

Science and spirituality. While science challenges many traditional religious beliefs, it doesn't necessarily conflict with all forms of spirituality or transcendent experiences. The key is to approach such experiences with intellectual honesty, recognizing that even profound subjective states are grounded in brain function and can be studied scientifically.

• Religious claims about reality are subject to empirical investigation
• Historical actions of religious institutions often contradict stated values
• Spiritual experiences can be studied without accepting supernatural claims
• Science-based ethics can provide a more reliable guide to human flourishing

4. Free will is an illusion, but moral responsibility remains relevant

There is no question that our behavior can be influenced by factors of which we are not conscious.

Determinism and neuroscience. Our actions and decisions are the product of neurological processes that we don't consciously control. This challenges traditional notions of free will, as our thoughts and intentions arise from brain states that are shaped by genetics, environment, and prior causes.

Rethinking responsibility. While this understanding of human behavior might seem to undermine notions of moral responsibility, it actually allows for a more nuanced and compassionate approach to ethics and criminal justice. Instead of focusing on punishment for its own sake, we can emphasize rehabilitation, prevention, and the protection of society.

• Conscious experience of decision-making doesn't reflect underlying neural processes
• Genetics, environment, and prior causes shape our thoughts and actions
• Traditional notions of free will are not supported by neuroscience
• Focus shifts to prevention, rehabilitation, and societal protection rather than retributive punishment

5. Belief formation is influenced by unconscious processes and biases

Clearly, people can adopt a form of life that needlessly undermines their physical health—as the average lifespan in many primitive societies is scarcely a third of what it has been in the developed world since the middle of the twentieth century.

Unconscious influences on belief. Our beliefs, including moral convictions, are shaped by numerous factors beyond our conscious awareness. Cognitive biases, emotional states, and cultural conditioning all play a role in how we form and maintain our worldviews. Understanding these influences is crucial for developing more rational approaches to ethics and decision-making.

Overcoming biases. While we can't eliminate all unconscious influences, awareness of these processes allows us to implement strategies to mitigate their effects. Critical thinking, exposure to diverse perspectives, and a willingness to revise beliefs in light of new evidence are essential for navigating moral questions more effectively.

• Beliefs are influenced by unconscious processes and cognitive biases
• Cultural conditioning shapes moral intuitions
• Awareness of these influences is the first step in overcoming them
• Critical thinking and openness to revision are crucial for moral progress

6. Psychopathy reveals the neurological basis of moral deficits

There is no question that scientists have occasionally demonstrated sexist and racist biases. The composition of some branches of science is still disproportionately white and male (though some are now disproportionately female), and one can reasonably wonder whether bias is the cause.

Brain differences in psychopaths. Studies of individuals with psychopathic traits reveal neurological differences that affect their capacity for empathy, emotional processing, and moral decision-making. This provides strong evidence for the biological basis of moral behavior and challenges purely cultural explanations of ethics.

Implications for ethics and justice. Understanding the neuroscience of psychopathy has important implications for how we approach criminal justice, rehabilitation, and the cultivation of prosocial behavior in society. It suggests that moral capacities can potentially be enhanced or impaired through biological and environmental interventions.

• Psychopaths show differences in brain structure and function
• These differences correlate with impaired empathy and moral reasoning
• Supports biological basis for moral behavior
• Implications for criminal justice, rehabilitation, and social policy

7. Advances in neuroscience challenge traditional notions of the soul

Clearly, if one is actually concerned about human and animal well-being, all talk of morality must be translated into facts about the experience of conscious creatures.

Mind-brain connection. Neuroscientific research increasingly demonstrates that all aspects of mental life, including consciousness, emotions, and decision-making, are products of brain function. This challenges dualistic notions of a separable soul or mind existing independently of the physical brain.

Ethical implications. Understanding the mind as a product of brain activity has profound implications for how we approach questions of personal identity, moral responsibility, and the treatment of mental illness. It shifts focus from metaphysical explanations to empirical investigations of how to promote mental health and well-being.

• All mental states correspond to brain states
• No evidence for a separable soul or mind independent of the brain
• Challenges traditional religious and philosophical concepts of personhood
• Shifts ethical focus to empirical investigation of mental health and well-being

8. Cultural relativism undermines genuine moral progress

If there were objective values, then they would be entities or qualities or relations of a very strange sort, utterly different from anything else in the universe.

The problem with relativism. Cultural relativism, the view that moral truths are only valid within specific cultural contexts, undermines efforts to make genuine moral progress. It can lead to a paralysis of moral judgment, where even the most egregious violations of human rights are excused as simply different cultural practices.

Universal moral standards. While respecting cultural diversity is important, certain moral principles, such as the reduction of unnecessary suffering, can and should be applied universally. Recognizing objective moral truths allows us to critique harmful practices and work towards global improvements in human welfare.

• Cultural relativism can excuse human rights violations
• Some moral principles (e.g., reducing suffering) have universal applicability
• Respecting diversity doesn't preclude moral judgments
• Objective moral standards enable genuine progress and cross-cultural critique

9. The is/ought distinction does not negate moral realism

While it is rarely stated this clearly, this faith in the intrinsic limits of reason is now the received opinion in intellectual circles.

Bridging is and ought. The philosophical distinction between descriptive statements (what is) and prescriptive statements (what ought to be) has often been used to argue against moral realism. However, this distinction doesn't negate the possibility of deriving moral truths from facts about the world and human experience.

Science-based ethics. By focusing on the well-being of conscious creatures, we can bridge the is/ought gap. Scientific investigation can reveal facts about what promotes or hinders well-being, providing a foundation for ethical reasoning. This approach doesn't eliminate all moral uncertainty but provides a framework for progress.

• The is/ought distinction doesn't preclude deriving moral truths from facts
• Well-being of conscious creatures provides a bridge between facts and values
• Scientific investigation can inform ethical reasoning
• Uncertainty in ethics parallels uncertainty in other domains of knowledge

10. Happiness and well-being are complex but scientifically approachable

To say that morality is arbitrary (or culturally constructed, or merely personal) because we must first assume that the well-being of conscious creatures is good, is like saying that science is arbitrary (or culturally constructed, or merely personal) because we must first assume that a rational understanding of the universe is good.

Complexity of well-being. Human happiness and well-being are multifaceted and influenced by numerous factors. While this complexity presents challenges for scientific study, it doesn't make well-being inherently unquantifiable or outside the realm of empirical investigation.

Advancing the science of happiness. Ongoing research in psychology, neuroscience, and related fields is shedding light on the determinants of human flourishing. This includes understanding the roles of social connections, meaningful work, physical health, and cognitive factors in promoting well-being. As this science progresses, it will provide increasingly valuable insights for individual and societal decision-making.

• Well-being is complex but not inherently unquantifiable
• Multiple factors contribute to human flourishing
• Ongoing research in psychology and neuroscience provides insights
• Scientific understanding of well-being can inform personal and policy decisions

Last updated: January 22, 2025