Key Takeaways
1. Morality evolved as a solution to cooperation problems
Morality is a set of psychological adaptations that allow otherwise selfish individuals to reap the benefits of cooperation.
Evolution of morality. Our moral instincts evolved to solve the "Tragedy of the Commons" - the conflict between individual and collective interests. These adaptations include emotions like empathy, guilt, and righteous indignation that motivate cooperation within groups. However, they also led to tribalism and between-group conflicts.
Modern moral challenges. While our moral instincts work well for simple Me vs. Us dilemmas, they struggle with complex Us vs. Them conflicts in the modern world. This "Tragedy of Commonsense Morality" arises because:
- Different tribes have incompatible moral values
- We're biased towards our in-group
- Our intuitions can be inflexible and irrational
2. Our moral brains have dual-process systems: automatic and manual
The moral brain's automatic settings are the moral emotions we'll meet in part 1, the gut-level instincts that enable cooperation within personal relationships and small groups. Manual mode, in contrast, is a general capacity for practical reasoning that can be used to solve moral problems, as well as other practical problems.
Automatic settings. Our moral intuitions are like a camera's automatic mode - efficient but inflexible. They include:
- Empathy and care for others
- Anger at cheaters and free-riders
- Loyalty to in-group members
- Disgust at potential contaminants
Manual mode. Our capacity for moral reasoning is like a camera's manual mode - flexible but effortful. It allows us to:
- Consider long-term consequences
- Apply abstract principles
- Make trade-offs between competing values
- Override emotional impulses when necessary
3. Utilitarianism offers a common moral currency for resolving conflicts
Utilitarianism combines the Golden Rule's impartiality with the common currency of human experience. This yields a moral system that can acknowledge moral trade-offs and adjudicate among them, and it can do so in a way that makes sense to members of all tribes.
Universal accessibility. Utilitarianism is based on two ideas that all humans can understand:
- What ultimately matters is the quality of conscious experience (happiness and suffering)
- Everyone's experience counts equally
Impartial decision-making. By focusing on overall welfare, utilitarianism provides a way to make difficult trade-offs between competing values and interests. This makes it uniquely suited as a "metamorality" for resolving conflicts between different moral tribes.
Common ground. While not everyone will fully embrace utilitarianism, most people can "get" its core ideas when pressed. This provides a shared language for moral debate across cultural divides.
4. Moral intuitions can be unreliable in complex modern dilemmas
Our moral alarm systems think that the difference between pushing and hitting a switch is of great moral significance. More important, our moral alarm systems see no difference between self-serving murder and saving a million lives at the cost of one.
Evolutionary mismatch. Our moral intuitions evolved for small-scale societies and simple dilemmas. They can misfire in novel situations, like:
- The trolley problem (switch vs. footbridge)
- Organ donation dilemmas
- Global poverty and effective altruism
Cognitive biases. Research shows our moral judgments are influenced by morally irrelevant factors:
- Physical distance to those affected
- Whether harm is caused actively or passively
- Whether victims are identifiable individuals or "statistical lives"
Need for reflection. We shouldn't blindly trust our gut reactions in unfamiliar moral territory. Instead, we must engage in careful moral reasoning, considering consequences and impartial principles.
5. Deep pragmatism: Shift to manual mode thinking for controversial issues
The key to using our moral brains wisely is to match the right kind of thinking with the right kind of problem.
Trust intuitions for simple dilemmas. For everyday Me vs. Us problems (lying, cheating, stealing), our moral emotions generally serve us well. We should follow our conscience in these situations.
Shift to manual mode for controversies. When facing Us vs. Them conflicts where tribes disagree, we need to:
- Recognize we're dealing with a complex issue
- Set aside gut reactions and tribal loyalties
- Engage in impartial, consequentialist reasoning
- Seek common ground based on shared values
Deliberate practice. Developing this "deep pragmatist" approach takes effort. We must train ourselves to notice moral controversy and resist the urge to immediately defend our tribe's position.
6. Maximizing happiness doesn't lead to oppression in the real world
If you think that oppression can maximize happiness in the real world, you're almost certainly imagining the wrong thing. You're imagining oppression that maximizes wealth, not happiness.
Utility vs. wealth. Critics argue utilitarianism could justify oppression if it increased overall happiness. This stems from confusing utility (well-being) with wealth. In reality:
- Oppression causes immense suffering
- Gains to oppressors are vastly outweighed by losses to the oppressed
- Wealth has diminishing returns to happiness
Real-world utilitarianism. A society aiming to maximize happiness would likely feature:
- Strong protections for individual rights and freedoms
- A social safety net to prevent extreme poverty
- Policies to reduce inequality (but not eliminate it entirely)
- Democratic institutions to prevent abuse of power
Accommodating human nature. Utilitarianism recognizes we're not perfectly impartial beings. It allows for special obligations to family and friends, while still pushing us to expand our circle of moral concern.
7. Acknowledging our ignorance can moderate extreme views
People, after being forced to explain the mechanics of these policies, downgraded their estimates of their own understanding and became more moderate in their opinions.
Illusion of understanding. We often think we understand complex issues better than we actually do. This false confidence can fuel polarization and extremism.
Benefits of epistemic humility:
- Moderates extreme positions
- Increases openness to other perspectives
- Promotes more nuanced, reality-based views
- Encourages seeking expert knowledge
Practical application. When discussing controversial issues:
- Try to explain in detail how a policy or system actually works
- Notice gaps in your understanding
- Adjust confidence levels accordingly
- Be more open to compromise and expert opinion
8. Utilitarianism accommodates personal relationships while pushing for reform
If it seems absurd to ask real humans to abandon their families, friends, and other passions for the betterment of anonymous strangers, then that can't be what utilitarianism actually asks of real humans.
Balancing ideals and reality. Utilitarianism recognizes human limitations while still providing moral guidance:
- It doesn't demand we become "happiness pumps" neglecting all personal concerns
- It does push us to expand our circle of moral concern beyond our immediate tribe
- It asks us to critically examine our spending and prioritize more effective ways of helping others
Gradual moral progress. Rather than demanding radical sacrifices, utilitarianism encourages:
- Donating a meaningful portion of income to effective charities
- Making career choices that have a positive impact on the world
- Supporting policies that benefit the global poor and future generations
- Reducing meat consumption to decrease animal suffering
Aspiring to be better. While we can't be perfect utilitarians, we can strive to be "less hypocritical" by acknowledging our moral limitations and working to gradually overcome them.
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FAQ
What's Moral Tribes about?
- Exploration of morality: Moral Tribes by Joshua D. Greene delves into the nature of morality, its evolution, and the conflicts that arise between different moral systems.
- Tragedy of Commonsense Morality: Greene introduces the "Tragedy of Commonsense Morality," highlighting conflicts between tribes with incompatible moral views.
- Dual-process moral reasoning: The book discusses how automatic emotional responses often conflict with controlled reasoning, explaining struggles with moral dilemmas.
Why should I read Moral Tribes?
- Understanding moral conflicts: The book provides insights into the reasons behind moral disagreements, helping readers navigate complex social issues.
- Practical moral philosophy: Greene offers a universal moral philosophy to resolve conflicts between groups, fostering empathy and understanding.
- Scientific basis for morality: Combining philosophy with psychology and neuroscience, the book enriches understanding of moral cognition.
What are the key takeaways of Moral Tribes?
- Moral machinery: Our brains are equipped with "moral machinery" that promotes cooperation within groups but struggles between groups.
- Need for metamorality: Greene argues for a "metamorality" to adjudicate between competing tribal moralities, essential for resolving conflicts.
- Utilitarianism as a solution: He advocates for evaluating actions based on their consequences for overall happiness, focusing on the greater good.
What is the "Tragedy of Commonsense Morality" in Moral Tribes?
- Definition of the tragedy: It refers to conflicts when different tribes clash over moral beliefs, leading to misunderstandings and violence.
- Moral perspectives: Each tribe's moral common sense leads to strife, even among groups sharing core values.
- Real-world implications: The concept is relevant to issues like political polarization, where differing moral frameworks lead to conflict.
How does Joshua D. Greene define morality in Moral Tribes?
- Morality as cooperation: Greene defines morality as psychological adaptations enabling cooperation among individuals, fostering social bonds.
- Evolutionary basis: Morality evolved to solve cooperation problems, allowing mutual benefit and understanding moral behavior.
- Moral emotions: Emotions like empathy and guilt guide moral behavior, helping navigate complex social situations.
What is dual-process moral reasoning in Moral Tribes?
- Two systems of thinking: It involves automatic emotional responses and controlled reasoning, explaining struggles with moral dilemmas.
- Emotional versus rational responses: Emotional responses may reject utilitarian solutions, while rational thinking may support them.
- Implications for moral reasoning: Understanding this theory helps recognize influences of emotion and reason in judgments.
How does Moral Tribes address cultural differences in morality?
- Cultural moral frameworks: Different cultures have distinct moral frameworks, leading to conflict shaped by historical and social factors.
- Tribalism and bias: Individuals favor their own cultural norms, complicating cooperation across cultural boundaries.
- Need for universal morality: Greene argues for a universal moral philosophy to bridge cultural divides and promote cooperation.
What solutions does Joshua D. Greene propose for resolving moral conflicts in Moral Tribes?
- Adopting utilitarianism: Focus on maximizing overall happiness and well-being, considering consequences for all affected parties.
- Developing metamorality: A higher-level moral system to facilitate cooperation and understanding among diverse groups.
- Encouraging empathy and dialogue: Foster empathy and open dialogue to bridge moral divides and work toward common goals.
How does Moral Tribes relate to contemporary moral issues?
- Addressing polarization: Insights into moral psychology help engage in constructive conversations about divisive issues.
- Practical moral solutions: Emphasizes empathy and shared values to navigate moral conflicts and find common ground.
- Relevance to public policy: Utilitarian approach can lead to effective and equitable solutions, considering societal well-being.
What role does empathy play in Moral Tribes?
- Empathy as a moral tool: Essential for fostering cooperation and understanding among diverse groups, bridging moral perspectives.
- Empathy and moral decision-making: Influences judgments, prioritizing well-being of connected individuals, creating challenges in broader issues.
- Cultivating empathy: Encourages active cultivation in moral reasoning for compassionate and effective solutions to dilemmas.
How does Joshua D. Greene define utilitarianism in Moral Tribes?
- Maximizing happiness: Seeks to maximize overall happiness and minimize suffering for the greatest number of people.
- Impartiality principle: Treats everyone's happiness as equally important, aligning with the Golden Rule.
- Pragmatic approach: Not about constant calculation but trusting moral intuitions while applying rational thought to dilemmas.
What are the best quotes from Moral Tribes and what do they mean?
- "Man will become better when you show him what he is like." — Emphasizes self-awareness and understanding one's moral nature to improve behavior.
- "Happiness is what matters, and everyone’s happiness counts the same." — Highlights utilitarianism's essence, considering well-being of all equally.
- "Morality is a set of psychological adaptations that allow otherwise selfish individuals to reap the benefits of cooperation." — Encapsulates Greene's thesis on morality's evolutionary basis promoting social harmony.
Review Summary
Moral Tribes receives mixed reviews. Many praise Greene's exploration of moral psychology and neuroscience, finding his arguments on utilitarianism as a meta-morality thought-provoking. Readers appreciate the accessible writing and fascinating experimental studies. However, some criticize the philosophical discussions as weak or biased, and find the book overly long. The trolley problem features prominently. While some view the book as groundbreaking, others see it as preaching to the choir. Overall, it's considered a stimulating read on moral cognition and inter-group conflict.
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