Network Propaganda

1. Asymmetric Media Ecosystem Fuels Disinformation

The critical change was that in 2016 the party of Ronald Reagan and the two presidents Bush was defeated by the party of Donald T rump, Breitbart, and billionaire Robert Mercer.

Two distinct spheres. The American media landscape is characterized by a stark asymmetry: a tightly-knit, insular right-wing media ecosystem versus a more diverse and interconnected "rest" anchored by professional journalism. This asymmetry is evident in hyperlinking patterns, social media sharing, and the flow of information.

Right-wing insularity. The right-wing media, dominated by outlets like Breitbart and Fox News, exhibits limited interaction with the rest of the media environment. This insularity creates an echo chamber where partisan narratives are amplified and dissenting voices are marginalized.

Mainstream integration. In contrast, the rest of the media ecosystem, spanning from center-right to left-wing publications, is more integrated and anchored in traditional journalistic norms. This integration fosters cross-checking, fact-checking, and a greater diversity of perspectives.

2. Propaganda Feedback Loops Amplify Partisan Narratives

A network caught within such a feedback loop makes it difficult for a media outlet or politician to adopt a consistently truth-focused strategy without being expelled from the network and losing influence in the relevant segment of the public.

Self-reinforcing cycles. Propaganda feedback loops occur when media outlets, political elites, and the public reinforce each other's narratives, regardless of their truthfulness. This dynamic lowers the cost of spreading lies that align with partisan beliefs and increases the cost of challenging those beliefs.

Truth suppression. Within a propaganda feedback loop, media outlets and politicians face pressure to conform to the dominant narrative, even if it means sacrificing accuracy. This creates a hostile environment for truth-seeking and critical inquiry.

Asymmetric effects. Propaganda feedback loops are more prevalent and powerful in the right-wing media ecosystem, where insularity and distrust of mainstream sources create fertile ground for misinformation. This asymmetry contributes to the overall polarization of American politics.

3. Right-Wing Media Frames Immigration with Islamophobia

Breitbart and Fox News were the two principal poles of conservative media depicted in the link economy maps.

Shifting the narrative. Right-wing media outlets, particularly Breitbart, have played a key role in framing immigration as a threat to national security, often emphasizing the dangers of Muslim immigrants and "radical Islamic terrorism." This framing has resonated with a segment of the population concerned about cultural change and national identity.

Exploiting fears. By associating immigration with terrorism and other negative outcomes, right-wing media outlets have tapped into deep-seated fears and anxieties among their audience. This emotional appeal has amplified the impact of their messaging and contributed to a more hostile climate toward immigrants.

Political consequences. The Islamophobic framing of immigration has had significant political consequences, shaping policy debates and influencing voter behavior. It has also contributed to the rise of anti-immigrant sentiment and discriminatory policies.

4. Fox News Serves as a Propaganda Arm

Over the course of 2017 Fox News had become the propaganda arm of the White House in all but name.

From news to propaganda. Fox News, once considered a mainstream conservative outlet, has increasingly embraced a propagandistic role, particularly in its defense of President Trump. This shift has involved promoting conspiracy theories, attacking the intelligence community, and discrediting investigations into Russian interference.

Deflecting blame. Fox News has played a key role in diverting attention from the Trump-Russia investigation by promoting alternative narratives, such as the Seth Rich conspiracy theory and the Uranium One scandal. These narratives aim to undermine the credibility of the investigation and protect the president from scrutiny.

Eroding trust. By attacking the media and other institutions, Fox News has contributed to a decline in public trust and a growing sense of division. This erosion of trust makes it more difficult for citizens to discern truth from falsehood and engage in informed political discourse.

5. Mainstream Media Susceptible to Manipulation

One of the starkest findings of our work was the extent to which non-horserace coverage in mainstream media followed the agenda of the right-wing media and the Trump campaign.

Balance as a weakness. Mainstream media outlets, in their pursuit of balance and objectivity, can be susceptible to manipulation by partisan actors. By giving equal weight to opposing viewpoints, even when one is based on falsehoods, they inadvertently amplify misinformation and create a false sense of equivalence.

Chasing the scoop. The pressure to break news and attract viewers can lead mainstream media outlets to prioritize sensationalism over accuracy. This can result in the dissemination of unverified claims and the amplification of partisan narratives.

Agenda setting. Mainstream media outlets can be influenced by the agenda-setting efforts of right-wing media and political campaigns. By focusing on certain issues and framing them in particular ways, they can inadvertently reinforce partisan narratives and shape public perceptions.

6. Alt-Right's Limited Role in Propaganda

Throughout our case studies we observe instances of alt-right memes trickling through the media ecosystem, but to do so they rely overwhelmingly on transmission by the more prominent nodes in the right-wing media network.

Peripheral influence. While the alt-right has played a role in generating and disseminating disinformation, its overall influence on the American media ecosystem is limited. Alt-right memes and narratives often rely on transmission by more prominent nodes in the right-wing media network to reach a wider audience.

Dependent on mainstream. Alt-right activists are adept at producing conspiracy theories and defamation campaigns, but they often depend on mainstream right-wing outlets to amplify their messages and give them credibility. This dependence limits their overall impact on the media ecosystem.

Private censorship concerns. The focus on alt-right online activists has created nettlesome problems for Americans concerned with democracy and the First Amendment; and for Europeans concerned with far-right propaganda on one hand, and the fear of American companies imposing their speech standards on Europeans on the other hand.

7. Russian Interference Exploits Existing Divisions

The critical thing to understand as you read this book is that the epochal change reflected by the 2016 election and the first year of the Trump presidency was not that Republicans beat Democrats despite having a demonstrably less qualified candidate.

Amplifying existing fissures. Russian information operations have sought to exploit existing divisions and vulnerabilities in American society, rather than creating them from scratch. These operations have often amplified partisan narratives and conspiracy theories already circulating within the right-wing media ecosystem.

Limited impact. While Russian interference is a serious concern, its overall impact on the 2016 election may have been overstated. Russian efforts often piggybacked on existing trends and narratives, rather than fundamentally altering the course of events.

Disorientation as a goal. A key goal of Russian disinformation is to sow confusion and distrust, making it difficult for people to distinguish truth from falsehood. By overstating the impact of Russian efforts, we inadvertently contribute to this goal.

8. Facebook's Algorithms and Clickbait

In our observations, Facebook appears to be a more polluted information environment than Twitter or the open web.

Rewarding engagement. Facebook's News Feed algorithm rewards content that generates high levels of engagement, such as shares, reactions, and comments. This can incentivize the creation and dissemination of clickbait and hyperpartisan content, which often elicits strong emotional responses.

Echo chambers. The algorithm can also reinforce echo chambers by showing users content that aligns with their existing beliefs and interests. This can limit exposure to diverse perspectives and contribute to political polarization.

Commercial incentives. Facebook's business model, which relies on advertising revenue, creates incentives to prioritize engagement over accuracy. This can lead to the amplification of misinformation and the erosion of trust in news media.

9. Polarization Stems from Elite-Driven Dynamics

No fact emerges more clearly from our analysis of how four million political stories were linked, tweeted, and shared over a three-year period than that there is no symmetry in the architecture and dynamics of communications within the right-wing media ecosystem and outside of it.

Asymmetric polarization. Polarization in American politics is not a symmetric phenomenon. The right-wing media ecosystem exhibits a unique level of insularity and susceptibility to disinformation, while the rest of the media environment is more integrated and anchored in professional journalistic norms.

Elite influence. Polarization is primarily driven by political elites, who shape the narratives and frames that resonate with their supporters. These narratives are then amplified by partisan media outlets and spread through social networks.

Long-term trends. Polarization is not a recent phenomenon caused by the internet. It has been developing for decades, driven by factors such as the Southern Strategy, the rise of the religious right, and the increasing influence of money in politics.

10. Technology Alone Cannot Explain Epistemic Crisis

W e take a political economy view of technology, suggesting that the fundamental mistake of “the internet polarizes” narrative is that it adopts too naïve a view of how technology works and understates the degree to which institutions, culture, and politics shape technological adoption and diffusion patterns.

Institutional factors. The current epistemic crisis is not solely a result of technological change. It is rooted in long-term changes in American politics, media, and culture. These institutional factors shape how technology is adopted and used, influencing its impact on public discourse.

Political culture. Different political systems and cultures will exhibit different effects of the same technologies. The American experience is not necessarily representative of other countries, and solutions must be tailored to specific contexts.

Methodological approach. A political economy view of technology offers a method and approach to observing empirically what in fact is happening in a country’s political media ecosystem, and a framework for understanding why the particular new technological affordances may develop differently in one country than another.

11. Truth-Seeking Requires Institutionalized Accountability

W e think that fundamentally, anyone who insists on claiming that we cannot draw conclusions about which side is biased, and which side gravitates more closely to the truth, must explain how the media sources most trusted by consistently conservative survey respondents—Fox News, Hannity, Rush Limbaugh, and Glenn Beck—are the equivalent of the sites that occupy the same positions among consistently liberal respondents: NPR, PBS, the BBC, and the New York Times.

Beyond neutrality. Traditional journalistic norms of neutrality and balance can be counterproductive in a propaganda-rich environment. A more effective approach is to emphasize transparency, accountability, and verifiable truth.

Institutionalized fact-checking. Fact-checking organizations play a crucial role in holding media outlets and political figures accountable for their statements. These organizations should be independent, well-funded, and transparent in their methods.

Public health approach. A public health approach to the media ecosystem involves continuous monitoring, data collection, and analysis to identify and address sources of misinformation and propaganda. This approach requires collaboration between researchers, platforms, and policymakers.

Last updated: March 20, 2025