On Sparta

1. Lycurgus' Laws: Shaping Spartan Society Through Rigorous Discipline

First and most significant among Lycurgus' numerous innovations was the institution of the Elders.

Lycurgus's impact. Lycurgus, the legendary lawgiver of Sparta, is credited with establishing the unique social, political, and military institutions that defined Spartan society for centuries. While the historicity of Lycurgus is debated, his attributed reforms were designed to create a state focused on military prowess, communal living, and unwavering obedience. These laws touched every aspect of Spartan life, from childhood education to governance.

Key institutions. Lycurgus's reforms included the establishment of the Gerousia (Council of Elders), a body of twenty-eight men over the age of sixty, elected for life, who served as advisors to the kings and held significant power in the state. He also implemented a system of common messes (phiditia), where citizens were required to eat together, fostering equality and discouraging the accumulation of wealth. The goal was to create a society where individual ambition was subordinated to the needs of the state.

Education and military training. The agoge, a rigorous system of education and military training, was central to Lycurgus's vision. Boys were taken from their families at the age of seven and subjected to harsh physical and mental challenges, designed to instill discipline, loyalty, and a readiness for war. This system produced highly skilled and disciplined warriors, but also suppressed individual expression and intellectual pursuits.

2. The Spartan Kingship: A Dual Monarchy Balancing Power

First and most significant among Lycurgus' numerous innovations was the institution of the Elders.

Unique dual kingship. Sparta was unique in having two kings, representing two distinct royal lines. This dual monarchy likely arose from the amalgamation of different communities, though its precise origins remain obscure. The kings held significant power, particularly in leading the army during campaigns, but their authority was also checked by the Gerousia and the ephors.

Balancing act. The dual kingship served as a check on individual power, preventing any one king from becoming too autocratic. The kings also had religious duties, performing sacrifices on behalf of the state. This system of shared power and religious responsibility contributed to the stability and longevity of the Spartan state.

Ephors' role. The ephors, five magistrates elected annually, further limited the kings' power. They could summon the kings, oversee their actions, and even bring them to trial. This system of checks and balances ensured that the kings remained accountable to the people and the laws of Sparta.

3. Spartan Social Structure: Spartiates, Perioeci, and Helots in a Rigid Hierarchy

Throughout, my notes aim to do no more than elucidate principal points of historical interest for the general reader.

Three distinct classes. Spartan society was divided into three distinct classes: the Spartiates (full citizens), the perioeci (free non-citizens), and the helots (state-owned serfs). Each class had specific roles and responsibilities within the state. This rigid social hierarchy was essential to maintaining Sparta's unique way of life.

Spartiates' role. The Spartiates were the ruling class, dedicating their lives to military training and service. They were forbidden from engaging in trade or agriculture, relying instead on the labor of the helots to provide for their needs. This allowed them to focus exclusively on maintaining their military prowess.

Perioeci and helots. The perioeci were free non-citizens who lived in the surrounding areas of Laconia and Messenia. They engaged in trade, crafts, and agriculture, providing essential goods and services to the Spartiate class. The helots were the lowest class, subjected to harsh treatment and forced to work the land for the benefit of the Spartiates. Their labor was essential to the Spartan economy, but their subjugation also created a constant threat of rebellion.

4. Agesilaus: A King's Devotion to Sparta Amidst Shifting Power

He was by general consent at once the most powerful and the most famous man of his time, as even Theopompus has said somewhere, but he took more pride in his personal merits than in his command.

Agesilaus's reign. Agesilaus II, a Eurypontid king who reigned from 400 to 360 BC, was a pivotal figure in Spartan history. His reign coincided with a period of both great power and eventual decline for Sparta. Agesilaus was known for his military skill, his devotion to traditional Spartan values, and his complex relationship with his fellow citizens.

Military campaigns. Agesilaus led Spartan forces in numerous campaigns, both in Greece and abroad. He fought against the Persians in Asia Minor, and against various Greek city-states, including Thebes and Athens. His military successes brought Sparta great power and influence, but also contributed to the resentment of other Greek states.

Personal qualities. Agesilaus was admired for his simplicity, his discipline, and his commitment to traditional Spartan values. He shunned luxury and extravagance, and lived a life of austerity and self-denial. However, he was also criticized for his stubbornness, his favoritism towards his friends, and his implacable hatred of Thebes.

5. The Decline of Sparta: Wealth, Inequality, and the Erosion of Lycurgan Ideals

But during Agis' reign money first poured into Sparta, and with money there developed greed and a passion for riches.

Seeds of decline. Despite its military successes, Sparta faced internal challenges that ultimately led to its decline. The influx of wealth, particularly after the Peloponnesian War, eroded the traditional Spartan values of equality and austerity. The accumulation of wealth in the hands of a few led to social inequality and discontent.

Falling Spartiate numbers. The number of Spartiates, full citizens, dwindled over time, due to factors such as war casualties, economic hardship, and the strict requirements for maintaining Spartiate status. This decline in manpower weakened Sparta's military strength and made it more reliant on mercenaries.

Theban challenge. The rise of Thebes under the leadership of Epaminondas posed a major threat to Spartan power. The Theban victory at the Battle of Leuctra in 371 shattered the myth of Spartan invincibility and led to the liberation of Messenia, a territory that had been under Spartan control for centuries.

6. Agis and Cleomenes: Reformers or Revolutionaries?

In fact the glory to which such persons attach themselves is a kind of illusion of true distinction, so that they achieve nothing pure or generally acknowledged, but much that is spurious and of mongrel character.

Attempts at reform. In the third century BC, Kings Agis IV and Cleomenes III attempted to restore the traditional Spartan values and institutions that had been eroded by wealth and inequality. Their efforts, however, were met with resistance from powerful elites who benefited from the existing system. This led to political turmoil and violence.

Agis's vision. Agis IV sought to redistribute land, cancel debts, and increase the number of Spartiates by incorporating perioeci and foreigners into the citizen body. His reforms were popular with the poor, but opposed by the wealthy landowners who controlled the Gerousia. Agis was eventually overthrown and executed.

Cleomenes's radicalism. Cleomenes III took a more radical approach, seizing power by force and implementing his reforms without the consent of the Gerousia. He abolished the ephorate, redistributed land, and expanded the citizen body. Cleomenes's reforms initially brought success, but his ambition and ruthlessness ultimately led to his downfall.

7. The Spartan Saying: Concise Wisdom and the Art of Laconic Expression

While the Laconian style of speech may seem brief, in my view it certainly does penetrate to the heart of a matter, and makes a forcible impression upon its hearers' minds.

Laconic style. Spartans were known for their concise and often witty speech, a style known as "laconic" after Laconia, the region surrounding Sparta. This emphasis on brevity and directness reflected the Spartan values of discipline, efficiency, and practicality. Spartan sayings were often used to convey complex ideas in a memorable and impactful way.

Examples of Spartan wit:

• When asked why Spartan swords were so short, King Agis retorted, "We reach the enemy with them."
• When an Athenian politician criticized Spartans as uneducated, King Pleistoanax replied, "You speak correctly, for we are the only Greeks who have learned nothing wicked from you Athenians."
• When asked how many Spartans there were, Archidamidas replied, "Enough to keep out undesirables."

Moral and practical value. Spartan sayings often conveyed moral lessons or practical advice. They emphasized the importance of courage, duty, self-control, and loyalty to the state. These sayings served as a constant reminder of Spartan values and helped to shape the character of Spartan citizens.

8. Spartan Women: Strength, Independence, and Civic Duty

That is because we are the only ones who give birth to men.

Distinct role. Spartan women held a unique position in ancient Greece, enjoying more freedom and influence than their counterparts in other city-states. They were expected to be strong, independent, and dedicated to the welfare of Sparta. Their primary duty was to bear healthy children, particularly male warriors, for the state.

Physical training and education. Spartan girls received physical training similar to that of boys, participating in running, wrestling, and other sports. This was intended to make them strong and healthy mothers. They were also educated in music, poetry, and other arts, though their education was less focused on intellectual pursuits than that of men.

Civic duty and influence. Spartan women were expected to uphold the values of Spartan society and to instill those values in their children. They were known for their courage, their patriotism, and their willingness to sacrifice for the good of Sparta. They also wielded considerable influence in Spartan society, particularly within the family.

Last updated: February 21, 2025