Postwar

1. The Devastating Legacy of World War II

Everywhere there is a craving for miracles and cures. The war has pushed the Neapolitans back into the Middle Ages.

Unprecedented destruction. World War II left Europe in ruins, both physically and psychologically. Cities were decimated, infrastructure was shattered, and millions were displaced or killed. The war's impact extended beyond military targets, deeply affecting civilian populations and economies.

Human cost. The war's most devastating consequence was the immense loss of life, with an estimated 36.5 million Europeans dying from war-related causes. A significant portion of these deaths were civilians, highlighting the war's total nature and its disregard for human life. The war also created a severe gender imbalance, particularly in the Soviet Union, where women outnumbered men by 20 million.

Social and moral collapse. The war eroded the fabric of European society, leading to a breakdown of law, order, and traditional values. Violence became commonplace, and the state's monopoly on force was challenged by partisan groups and armies. The concept of property rights was undermined, and theft and looting became widespread, further contributing to the moral decay of the continent.

2. The Complexities of Post-War Retribution

Vengeance is pointless, but certain men did not have a place in the world we sought to construct.

Desire for justice. In the aftermath of the war, there was a strong desire for retribution against those who had collaborated with the Nazi regime. However, the process of identifying and punishing collaborators was complex and often fraught with difficulties.

Defining collaboration. The definition of "collaboration" was often ambiguous, and many individuals were unfairly targeted or escaped justice altogether. The pursuit of retribution was also influenced by political opportunism and economic self-interest, further complicating the process.

Varying approaches. Different countries adopted varying approaches to punishing collaborators, with some, like Norway, pursuing widespread investigations and prosecutions, while others, like France, opting for a more lenient approach. The Soviet Union and its satellite states used the trials of collaborators as a means of eliminating political opponents and consolidating Communist power.

3. Rehabilitating Europe: Planning and the Welfare State

All of us know by now that from this war there is no way back to a laissez-faire order of society, that war as such is the maker of a silent revolution by preparing the road to a new type of planned order.

Rejection of the past. The war discredited the pre-war political and economic systems, leading to a widespread desire for radical change. Resistance movements envisioned a post-war society based on social justice, economic planning, and international cooperation.

Rise of planning. Economic planning gained prominence as a means of addressing the failures of laissez-faire capitalism and preventing a return to the instability of the inter-war years. Both Western and Eastern European governments embraced planning as a way to rebuild their economies and ensure social welfare.

The welfare state. The concept of the welfare state emerged as a key component of post-war reconstruction, with governments taking on greater responsibility for providing social services, healthcare, and economic security to their citizens. This marked a significant shift from the limited role of the state in previous eras.

4. The Impossible Settlement: Germany and the Cold War Divide

The human problem the war will leave behind it has not yet been imagined, much less faced by anybody. There has never been such destruction, such disintegration of the structure of life.

The German question. The future of Germany became a central point of contention between the Allied powers, with the Soviet Union and the Western Allies pursuing divergent goals. The division of Germany into separate occupation zones foreshadowed the broader division of Europe.

Soviet aims. Stalin sought to secure Soviet influence in Eastern Europe and prevent a resurgence of German power. He aimed to create a buffer zone of friendly states along the Soviet Union's western border.

Western response. The Western Allies, concerned about Soviet expansionism, sought to rebuild Western Europe and contain the spread of Communism. The Marshall Plan and the formation of NATO were key components of this strategy.

5. Culture Wars: Ideologies and Shifting Alliances

Everywhere there is a craving for miracles and cures. The war has pushed the Neapolitans back into the Middle Ages.

Clash of ideologies. The Cold War extended beyond military and political spheres, encompassing a cultural and intellectual battle between Communism and anti-Communism. Intellectuals and artists were drawn into the conflict, often aligning themselves with one side or the other.

The role of intellectuals. Intellectuals played a significant role in shaping public opinion and promoting ideological agendas. However, their influence was often limited by the constraints of censorship and political pressure.

The American influence. The United States sought to promote its cultural values and counter Soviet influence through various initiatives, including the Congress for Cultural Freedom. However, American cultural influence was often met with resistance and skepticism in Europe.

6. The Dawn of the Age of Affluence and Its Discontents

Belgians and French and Dutch had been brought up in the war to believe that their patriotic duty was to cheat, to lie, to run a black market, to discredit and to defraud: these habits became ingrained after five years.

Economic recovery. The post-war decades saw a remarkable period of economic growth and prosperity in Western Europe. This "economic miracle" transformed living standards and created new opportunities for many Europeans.

Consumerism and social change. The rise of consumerism and mass culture led to significant social changes, including the emergence of a youth culture and the erosion of traditional values. These changes were met with both enthusiasm and resistance.

The limits of prosperity. Despite the overall increase in wealth, inequalities persisted, and many Europeans felt alienated from the new consumer society. This discontent fueled social unrest and contributed to the rise of new political movements.

7. The End of Illusions: From Revolution to Realism

This was no slow decadence that came to the Europeanised world—other civilizations rolled and crumbled down, the European civilization was, as it were, blown up.

Disillusionment with revolution. The events of 1956 and 1968 shattered the illusions of many who had believed in the possibility of a Communist revolution in Europe. The Soviet invasion of Czechoslovakia, in particular, exposed the brutality and repressiveness of the Communist regime.

The rise of realism. The failure of revolutionary movements led to a shift towards a more pragmatic and realistic approach to politics. Intellectuals and activists began to focus on incremental reforms and practical solutions to social problems.

The end of ideology. The decline of Communism and the rise of pragmatism contributed to a broader sense of ideological exhaustion in Europe. The grand narratives of the past were increasingly questioned, and a new emphasis was placed on individual freedom and personal responsibility.

8. A Fissile Continent: The Breakup of Empires and the Rise of New Nations

The human problem the war will leave behind it has not yet been imagined, much less faced by anybody. There has never been such destruction, such disintegration of the structure of life.

The collapse of Communism. The late 1980s and early 1990s saw the collapse of Communist regimes across Eastern Europe. This led to the redrawing of national boundaries and the emergence of new independent states.

Ethnic conflict. The break-up of Yugoslavia was accompanied by violent ethnic conflicts, resulting in widespread death, displacement, and human rights abuses. The wars in the Balkans highlighted the challenges of managing ethnic diversity and building stable democracies in the post-Communist era.

The legacy of division. The end of the Cold War did not erase the divisions and tensions that had shaped Europe for decades. The legacy of Communism continued to influence political and social life in Eastern Europe, and the continent faced new challenges related to immigration, economic inequality, and cultural identity.

9. The European Union: A Search for Identity and Purpose

Is not the pastness of the past the more profound, the more legendary, the more immediately it falls before the present?

Expansion and integration. The European Union expanded its membership to include many of the former Communist states of Eastern Europe. This process of enlargement presented both opportunities and challenges for the Union.

The search for identity. As the EU grew in size and scope, it faced the challenge of defining its own identity and purpose. The question of what it meant to be "European" became increasingly complex and contested.

The democratic deficit. The EU's decision-making processes were often criticized for being undemocratic and lacking transparency. This led to a growing sense of alienation among European citizens and fueled skepticism about the Union's legitimacy.

10. From the House of the Dead: Memory and the European Project

Truly superb. It is hard to imagine how a better—and more readable—history of the emergence of today’s Europe from the ashes of 1945 could ever be written.

The legacy of the Holocaust. The memory of the Holocaust has played a central role in shaping European identity and values. The commitment to "never again" has served as a guiding principle for European integration and human rights policies.

The burden of the past. The weight of history continues to influence European politics and culture. The challenge for Europeans is to confront their past honestly and learn from its lessons, while also building a more inclusive and forward-looking future.

Europe as a way of life. Despite the challenges and divisions, Europe has emerged as a distinct cultural and political entity, offering a unique model of social welfare, international cooperation, and peaceful coexistence. This "European way of life" represents a significant achievement in the face of the continent's troubled past.

Last updated: March 2, 2025