Public Administration and Public Affairs

1. America's Governing Culture is Defined by Deep-Seated Constraint.

The American social contract, forged in revolution, leashes government with a taut tether.

Historical roots. From Native American tribal structures to English resistance against monarchy, early American influences emphasized limiting executive power. The Articles of Confederation and early state constitutions reflected this, creating weak executives and powerful legislatures. This historical bias against centralized authority persists today.

Culture of distrust. A core feature of American political culture is a deep distrust of government, particularly elected officials, though less so of public safety agencies. This distrust has grown over time and manifests as a preference for constrained governance. While some advocate for dismantling government, public opinion surveys show majorities still support government roles in many areas, but desire it to "work."

Consequences of constraint. This culture hobbles elected chief executives at all levels, limiting presidential domestic power, gubernatorial appointment/veto powers, and local mayors' authority. It also constrains governmental growth compared to other developed democracies, evident in lower tax burdens relative to GDP and slower growth rates since the late 1970s.

2. Public Administration is the Essential Pillar of Good Government.

Public administrators play “the central role . . . in sustaining citizen support for democracy.”

Three pillars. Good government rests on honesty, democracy, and competence. While politicians are often blamed for governmental failures, public administrators are crucial to achieving all three. They are the implementers who translate policy into action and deliver services.

Bureaucrats are liked. Despite negative portrayals in media and by politicians, the public generally holds favorable opinions of government workers and reports positive experiences with them. This suggests that while trust in the political system may be low, trust in the administrators who provide services is higher.

Competence matters. Effective and efficient governance directly enhances citizens' daily lives and contributes to overall quality of life and economic growth. Public administrators are key to this competence, and their performance significantly impacts public trust in government's ability to deliver.

3. The Field of Public Administration Evolved Through Shifting Intellectual Paradigms.

A theory of public administration means in our time a theory of politics also.

Early dichotomy. The field began with the politics/administration dichotomy (1900-1926), arguing for a separation to achieve efficiency. This was followed by the principles of administration paradigm (1927-1937), seeking universal scientific rules for management, often supported by philanthropists like the Rockefellers.

Mid-century crisis. Challenges to the dichotomy and principles led to public administration being absorbed by political science and generic management paradigms (1950-1970). This period saw the field struggle for a distinct identity, with some fearing its "evaporation."

Re-emergence and governance. Public administration re-emerged as its own field (1970-Present), recognizing the political-administrative continuum and the unique "publicness" of government. The current paradigm also embraces "governance" (1990-Present), acknowledging the increasing complexity of governing through networks involving public, private, and nonprofit sectors.

4. Organizations Operate Along a Spectrum from Rigid 'Closed' to Flexible 'Open' Models.

For almost every principle one can find an equally plausible and acceptable contradictory principle.

Two core models. Organizational theory presents two main models: the closed model (bureaucratic, hierarchical, emphasizing rules, efficiency, and top-down control in stable environments) and the open model (organic, flexible, emphasizing human relations, adaptation, and collaboration in turbulent environments). Neither exists in pure form.

Threads of theory. Within the closed model are bureaucratic theory (Weber), scientific management (Taylor, Gilbreths), and administrative management (principles). Within the open model are human relations (Hawthorne studies, Maslow, Herzberg, engagement), organization development (Lewin, planned change), and the organization-environment relationship (adaptation, political approach).

Fundamental differences. The models differ on assumptions about:

• Environment (stable vs. unstable)
• Human nature (dislikes work vs. enjoys work)
• Power (coercive, legitimate vs. subtle, potentially absent)
• Manipulation (obvious vs. disguised)
• Moral significance (bureaucracy saves society vs. bureaucracy dehumanizes society)
  Reconciling these opposites involves understanding organizations' drive to reduce uncertainty.

5. Understanding the Human Element is Key to Managing People in Organizations.

The longer employees work in an organization, the more engagement decreases until only 20 percent are engaged after 10 years of service.

Motivation matters. People work for a mix of reasons, including public service motivation, job security, and compensation. Public and nonprofit employees often prioritize mission and security more than private sector workers, who may prioritize advancement and pay. However, engagement, a blend of rational and emotional commitment, is a stronger predictor of productivity than mere job satisfaction.

Personality and life stages. Individual differences, influenced by factors like birth order (conservatives vs. rebels) and life's turning points (trust, autonomy, identity, generativity), shape how people interact within organizations. Early "reality shock" and later mid-life transitions can impact engagement and career paths.

Organizational politics. People navigate organizations through informal alliances and career perspectives (institutionalists, specialists, hybrids). While specialists bring technical skill and institutionalists provide stability, hybrids can be unpredictable. Effective leadership involves understanding these dynamics and leveraging diverse strengths.

6. Public Organizations Face Unique Environmental Pressures and Bureaucratic Realities.

You can lead a bureaucracy to slaughter but you can’t make it shrink.

External pressures. Public organizations are uniquely susceptible to external pressures from politics, citizens, special interests, and laws like sunshine laws and administrative procedure acts. These forces can significantly constrain agency autonomy and decision-making.

Bureaucracy's components. This environment contributes to the defining features of bureaucracy: hierarchy and red tape. While hierarchy can aid coordination and control, excessive layers can impede efficiency. Red tape, though sometimes ensuring fairness and long-term efficiency, is often perceived negatively and can hinder productivity.

Resistance to change. Despite efforts to streamline and modernize, public organizations are inherently resistant to rapid change due to their process-intensive nature and the complex web of external constraints. This makes them less adaptable than private or nonprofit counterparts in certain areas.

7. Public Finance is a Complex System of Revenue, Debt, and Political Choices.

In government, money is blood.

Revenue sources. Governments at all levels rely on taxes (income, sales, property), intergovernmental transfers, and fees. The mix varies significantly by level, with the federal government relying heavily on income taxes, states on sales and income taxes, and localities on property taxes and fees.

Deficits and debt. Federal finance is marked by persistent deficits and a massive national debt, a trend exacerbated since the 1980s by tax cuts and increased spending. While economists debate the precise impact, large debt can lead to higher interest payments and limit policy options.

Subnational challenges. State and local governments, though generally more fiscally disciplined with balanced budget requirements, face their own pressures. Rising healthcare and pension costs, coupled with limitations on revenue growth, create significant long-term fiscal challenges, often linked to federal policies and economic trends.

8. Public Budgeting is a Political Process Shaped by Evolving Formats and Power Dynamics.

A budget is “a series of goals with price tags attached.”

Budgetary evolution. Public budgeting has evolved through various formats since the early 20th century, from the initial Line-Item Budget (focused on control and honesty) to Program/Performance Budgeting (linking inputs to outputs), Planning-Programming-Budgeting System (emphasizing planning and outcomes), Budgeting-by-Objectives (goal-oriented), Zero Base Budgeting (prioritization), Target Base Budgeting (top-down control), and Performance-Based Budgeting (linking budgets to performance measures).

Political process. Acquiring and legislating budgets is inherently political. Bureaucrats employ strategies and tactics to secure funds, often acting as "budget-minimizing" rather than "budget-maximizing" agents. Legislatures, particularly Congress, exert significant power, often leading to delays, continuing resolutions, and budget impasses.

Performance linkage. The effort to link budgets to performance, though challenging, persists. While federal and state governments have implemented performance budgeting laws, actual linkage varies. Local governments, often more innovative, show greater success in using performance data for budgetary decisions.

9. Managing Public Human Capital Involves Navigating Multiple, Sometimes Conflicting, Personnel Systems.

The federal government is quickly approaching the point where ‘standard governmentwide’ human capital policies and processes are neither standard nor governmentwide.

Evolution of HR. Public human capital management evolved from "government by gentlemen" and the spoils system to the merit-based Civil Service System, influenced by scientific management and the recognition of administrators as policymakers. More recently, professional systems emphasizing specialized skills and performance have emerged.

Civil Service System. The core merit system emphasizes position classification, testing, and centralized control. However, it faces challenges from outdated practices, difficulties in performance appraisal, and the struggle to dismiss poor performers, leading to a perception of "slippage."

Other systems. The Collective System (unions) represents organized labor, advocating for worker rights and benefits, sometimes clashing with management priorities. The Political Executive System involves appointed officials, often prioritizing loyalty but facing challenges with competence and short tenure. Specialized Professional Systems focus on managing careers for highly educated specialists, while the Professional Public Administration System aims to integrate HR with broader management goals.

10. Achieving Diversity and Equity in Public Service is a Complex and Ongoing Challenge.

The black person who moves up the line thanks to affirmative action may not logically ‘deserve’ the place he gets. But, for the same reason, the white person who loses that place doesn’t ‘deserve’ it either.

Civil rights and protected classes. Governments have extended civil rights protections to various groups (race, religion, national origin, age, disability, sexual orientation), prohibiting discrimination in employment and services. This has been a gradual process, often driven by legislation and judicial rulings.

Affirmative action. Affirmative action policies proactively seek to increase representation of disadvantaged groups through hiring, promotion, and contracting goals. While controversial, particularly regarding quotas and "reverse discrimination," the Supreme Court has upheld diversity as a defensible goal, though requiring strict scrutiny of race-based policies.

Impact and challenges. Affirmative action has increased diversity in public and nonprofit sectors, particularly for women and minorities, though progress varies by level of government and group. However, challenges remain, including perceptions of discrimination, backlash, and the need for effective diversity management to realize the full benefits of a diverse workforce.

11. Governments Increasingly Implement Policy Through Intersectoral Partnerships and Proxies.

It is now commonplace for agencies to use contractors to perform activities historically performed by government employees.

Government by proxy. Due to workload and complexity, governments at all levels increasingly rely on private companies, nonprofit organizations, and other governments to implement public policies. This creates a large "indirect" workforce operating outside traditional government structures.

Privatization. A major form of outsourcing is privatization, involving governments selling assets or, more commonly in the US, purchasing goods and services from other sectors. Motivations include potential savings, cost clarification, and political risk reduction, though evidence of consistent efficiency gains is mixed.

Challenges and consequences. Federal contracting faces issues of competence (inept management, inadequate vetting), corruption (revolving door, contentedly corrupt contractors), and inefficiency (complexity, lack of competition). Despite reforms, these problems persist. A clear consequence is the enrichment of those in the Washington metropolitan area involved in the contracting and lobbying ecosystem. State and local governments also privatize, facing similar challenges but often showing greater innovation and responsiveness in managing these relationships.

Last updated: June 11, 2025