Self-theories

1. Mindset shapes motivation, learning, and achievement

Students' theories about their intelligence can create different psychological worlds, leading them to think, feel, and act differently in identical situations.

Implicit theories matter. People develop beliefs about the nature of their abilities, particularly intelligence, which profoundly impact their motivation and achievement. Those with a "fixed mindset" (entity theory) view intelligence as a static trait, while those with a "growth mindset" (incremental theory) see it as a quality that can be developed. These mindsets create different psychological frameworks that influence how individuals approach learning, respond to challenges, and interpret their experiences.

Real-world consequences. Research shows that students' theories of intelligence predict their academic achievement, especially during challenging transitions like entering junior high school. Those with a growth mindset tend to embrace challenges, persist in the face of setbacks, and achieve at higher levels compared to their fixed mindset peers. This effect has been observed across diverse populations and even in interventions that teach students about the malleable nature of intelligence, leading to improved academic performance.

2. Fixed mindset leads to performance goals; growth mindset to learning goals

The incremental theory, instead, aids students by setting up a desire for challenge and the expectation that mastery is a process that takes place over time and with prolonged effort.

Goal orientation differences. Students' mindsets strongly influence the types of goals they pursue. Those with a fixed mindset tend to adopt "performance goals," focusing on proving their intelligence and avoiding situations where they might appear less capable. In contrast, students with a growth mindset are more likely to pursue "learning goals," seeking out challenges and opportunities to develop their abilities.

Implications for achievement. The difference in goal orientation has significant consequences:

• Performance goals:
  • Lead to avoiding challenging tasks
  • Create anxiety about making mistakes
  • Can result in giving up when faced with difficulties
• Learning goals:
  • Encourage embracing challenges
  • Foster resilience in the face of setbacks
  • Promote deeper learning strategies and better long-term achievement

3. Praise for intelligence can backfire; praise for effort fosters resilience

Intelligence labels, good or bad, have undermining effects. Both teach children that their underlying intelligence can be readily judged from their performance.

The paradox of intelligence praise. Contrary to popular belief, praising children for their intelligence can have negative consequences. Studies show that children praised for being smart:

• Become more concerned with looking smart than with learning
• Avoid challenging tasks that might reveal inadequacies
• Lose confidence and motivation when faced with difficulties
• Are more likely to lie about their performance to maintain their "smart" image

Effective praise strategies. Instead of praising intelligence, focusing on effort, strategies, and progress leads to more adaptive outcomes:

• Encourages a growth mindset
• Promotes resilience in the face of challenges
• Fosters a love of learning and willingness to take on difficult tasks
• Helps children develop a sense of control over their achievements

4. Helpless vs. mastery-oriented responses to challenges stem from mindsets

The helpless response is not a matter of a student's present ability. Very skilled students are just as likely as less-skilled students to respond to difficulty by blaming their abilities and giving up.

Two distinct patterns. When faced with challenges or failures, individuals tend to exhibit either a "helpless" or "mastery-oriented" response:

• Helpless response:
  • Attribute failure to lack of ability
  • Experience negative emotions and loss of self-esteem
  • Give up or avoid similar challenges in the future
• Mastery-oriented response:
  • View setbacks as opportunities for learning
  • Maintain positive emotions and self-esteem
  • Increase effort and seek new strategies to overcome challenges

Mindset connection. These response patterns are closely tied to individuals' mindsets. Those with a fixed mindset are more prone to helpless responses, while those with a growth mindset tend to exhibit mastery-oriented responses. Importantly, these patterns are not fixed traits but can be influenced by the messages and feedback individuals receive about the nature of ability and intelligence.

5. Entity vs. incremental theories affect judgments of self and others

Entity theorists believed that Jack would win out again. They had apparently decided that he was the more intellectually able student. In sharp contrast, incremental theorists thought the other student, Joe, would come out on top in the new situation.

Self-judgment impacts. People's theories about the nature of personal attributes (entity vs. incremental) influence how they judge themselves and others:

• Entity theorists:
  • Make rapid, global judgments based on limited information
  • See traits as fixed and highly predictive of future behavior
  • More likely to label themselves and others based on single incidents
• Incremental theorists:
  • More cautious about making sweeping judgments
  • View behaviors as influenced by situational factors and subject to change
  • Less likely to make broad generalizations about themselves or others

Social consequences. These different judgment styles can have significant effects on interpersonal relationships, leadership, and social interactions. Entity theorists may be quicker to categorize people and less open to changes in their impressions, while incremental theorists may be more flexible in their views of others and more open to personal growth and change.

6. Mindsets influence stereotyping and beliefs about potential for change

I believe that people and society gain a great deal when we search for ways to help people realize their potential instead of labeling or punishing them when they do not.

Stereotyping tendencies. Research shows that individuals with an entity theory are more likely to endorse and act on stereotypes compared to those with an incremental theory. This is true for both positive and negative stereotypes and applies to various social groups.

Implications for change and rehabilitation. Mindsets also impact beliefs about people's potential for change:

• Entity theorists:
  • More likely to view traits and behaviors as fixed
  • Less supportive of rehabilitation efforts for offenders
  • Favor punishment over education and skill development
• Incremental theorists:
  • More likely to believe in the potential for personal growth and change
  • More supportive of educational and rehabilitative approaches
  • Focus on addressing underlying causes of problematic behaviors

These differing perspectives have significant implications for education, criminal justice, and social policy.

7. Self-theories develop early and impact vulnerability vs. resilience

Many young vulnerable children have the same kinds of beliefs as older vulnerable students—the belief that your traits can be measured from your failures and that your traits are for all time.

Early development of self-theories. Contrary to earlier beliefs, research shows that children as young as 3-4 years old can develop theories about the nature of their abilities and personal qualities. These early self-theories focus primarily on ideas of "goodness" and "badness" rather than intelligence.

Impact on vulnerability. Young children with entity-like theories about goodness:

• Are more likely to interpret mistakes as signs of being "bad"
• Show more helpless responses to criticism or failure
• Experience greater drops in self-esteem after setbacks
• Are more likely to give up on tasks after initial difficulties

In contrast, children with incremental-like theories show greater resilience, viewing mistakes as opportunities for learning and maintaining a more stable sense of self-worth in the face of challenges.

8. Fostering a growth mindset promotes adaptive motivation and achievement

We can be frank with students about what they lack and what they need to do to get it.

Creating growth-oriented environments. To foster adaptive motivation and achievement, educators and parents should:

• Focus on the process of learning rather than innate ability
• Provide specific, strategy-oriented feedback instead of person-oriented praise
• Emphasize effort, persistence, and improvement over natural talent
• Frame challenges and mistakes as opportunities for growth
• Teach about brain plasticity and the malleability of intelligence

Long-term benefits. Cultivating a growth mindset can lead to:

• Increased resilience in the face of academic and personal challenges
• Higher levels of achievement across various domains
• Greater willingness to take on difficult tasks and persist through setbacks
• Improved self-esteem based on effort and personal growth rather than fixed traits
• More adaptive responses to criticism and failure throughout life

By understanding and applying these principles, educators, parents, and individuals can create environments that promote lifelong learning, resilience, and achievement.

Last updated: September 17, 2024