Stronger

1. Muscle is Fundamental to Life and Function

...all we can do is to move things, and our muscular contraction is our sole means thereto.

Essential for movement. Every voluntary action, from lifting a calf like the mythical Milo to turning a page, relies on muscle contraction. Muscle makes up a significant portion of our body mass (30-50%) and is highly adaptable based on our habits.

Metabolic powerhouse. Beyond movement, muscle is a primary metabolic organ, crucial for growth, healing, and regeneration. Working muscles produce myokines, signaling molecules that influence the brain, heart, liver, and other systems, promoting overall thriving.

Lifelong importance. From adolescence onward, progressive resistance exercise offers vast benefits, including improved confidence, bone density, metabolic health, and reduced risk of chronic diseases and injuries. In old age, muscle is key to independence and agency.

2. Ancient Views Shaped Our Understanding of Muscle

Before they became fascinated with special structures named muscles, the Greeks celebrated bodies that had a particular look—a special clarity of form, a distinct ‘jointedness,’ which they identified with the vital as opposed to the dying...

Early ignorance. Despite depicting muscular physiques in art, ancient Greeks initially had little understanding of muscle's role in movement. Homeric epics mention muscle (sarx, mys) mainly in scenes of death and dismemberment, associating it with vulnerability, not power.

Focus on joints. Ancient Greek art and thought often prioritized joints over muscle mass. Statues emphasized articulation, and philosophers like Aristotle believed movement originated from the soul acting on sinews connected to bones, viewing flesh (sarx) primarily as padding or insulation.

Pneuma theories. Later, Alexandrian anatomists and physicians like Galen proposed that movement came from psychic pneuma (animal spirits) flowing through nerves to inflate muscles. This view, though more detailed, still saw the fleshy part of muscle as passive, hindering a deeper understanding of its function for centuries.

3. Athletics and Medicine Have a Long, Tense History

“Everything in excess is opposed to nature.”

Conflicting ideals. From ancient Greece, a tension existed between athletics and medicine. Doctors like Hippocrates and Galen often criticized athletes for striving for peak performance and excess, advocating instead for moderation and balanced health.

Persistent prejudice. This prejudice against intense physical training, especially weightlifting and building muscle mass, continued for centuries.

• Galen called large muscles "disease."
• Seneca believed building mass "strangled the soul."
• Nineteenth-century doctors warned large muscles "sap vitality."
• Mid-twentieth-century medical views dismissed weight training as superficial compared to aerobic exercise.

Rhetoric vs. reality. Much of the medical criticism was rhetorical, aimed at promoting doctors' authority over health. Despite the rhetoric, some ancient and many nineteenth-century figures recognized the value of challenging exercise, even heavy lifting, for health and vitality.

4. Building Strength is a Cyclical Process of Adaptation

“Training may then be described as the process whereby the body is systematically exposed to a given set of stressors to enable it to efficiently manage future exposure to those stressors.”

Beyond linear progression. The myth of Milo lifting a calf daily until it became a bull suggests linear progress, but human strength doesn't work that way. Continuous progressive overload leads to diminishing returns and injury.

Stress and recovery. Strength is built through a cyclical process involving applying stress (training), followed by rest and recovery. Adaptation, including tissue repair and growth (supercompensation), occurs primarily during rest periods.

Periodization. Organizing training into cycles (periodization) that vary intensity and volume allows for planned recovery and optimizes long-term gains. This principle, recognized by Russian sports scientists and popularized by figures like Pavel Tsatsouline, acknowledges that strength ebbs and flows.

5. Strength Training is a Skill of Managing Tension

“Tension = Force”

Neuromuscular collaboration. Strength is not just about muscle size; it's a skill involving the nervous system's ability to generate tension in muscles. The tenser your muscles, the more force you can display.

Balancing tensions. Effective training involves managing and balancing tensions within and among muscle groups. For example, desk work tightens flexors, requiring targeted training of extensors (like glutes and back muscles) to maintain posture and prevent pain.

Eccentric contractions. The process of building strength often involves eccentric contractions (lowering a weight under control), which can cause muscle damage. This damage triggers repair and regeneration, making muscles stronger and more resilient, even if it causes temporary soreness (DOMS).

6. Muscle Quality and Activation Matter Beyond Size

“The principal factor related to contractile properties is muscle size,” he writes. However, “differences in the cross-sectional area of muscle” account for only about 50 percent of the differences in strength among individuals.

Size isn't everything. While muscle size (hypertrophy) contributes significantly to strength, it's not the sole determinant. Neuromuscular activation—how effectively the nervous system recruits muscle fibers—accounts for the other half of strength differences.

Strength without size. In the early stages of training, strength gains are primarily due to improved neural activation; muscles get stronger before they get significantly bigger. This is why people can increase strength without necessarily becoming "bulky."

Variability. Responses to training vary widely among individuals due to genetics, training methods, nutrition, and other factors. Muscle size gains, for instance, can range dramatically even with the same program, and this variability exists for both men and women.

7. High-Intensity Training is Safe and Effective for the Oldest

“High-Intensity Strength Training in Nonagenarians.”

Challenging dogma. Contrary to long-held medical beliefs, pioneering research by Maria Fiatarone and colleagues at Hebrew Rehabilitation Center demonstrated that high-intensity progressive resistance training is safe and feasible for frail nonagenarians.

Dramatic results. This research showed remarkable improvements in strength (average 174% gain), muscle size (10-15% increase), and functional abilities (walking speed, standing from a chair) in people aged 86-96.

Counteracting decline. The studies provided unprecedented proof that even in the tenth decade of life, muscles retain the capacity for growth and regeneration, challenging the notion of inevitable age-related decline and offering hope for improved quality of life.

8. Exercise is Powerful Medicine for Chronic Diseases

“Exercise is clearly a drug.”

Broad therapeutic effects. Research, significantly advanced by Maria Fiatarone Singh and Nalin Singh, shows that progressive resistance training is an effective treatment for numerous chronic conditions.

• Depression: High-intensity training can be as effective as antidepressant drugs, with a better risk-benefit ratio.
• Type 2 Diabetes: Resistance training improves glycemic control, insulin sensitivity, and body composition, often more effectively than diet or aerobic exercise alone, and can counteract negative drug side effects.
• Hypertension: Resistance training is as effective as many blood pressure medications, and combining it with aerobic exercise may be even more potent.

Beyond single conditions. Exercise often addresses multiple health problems simultaneously, offering a comprehensive approach to complex conditions like sarcopenic obesity and chronic kidney disease. It can improve function and quality of life where other treatments fall short.

Precision required. Like pharmaceuticals, exercise prescriptions need to be precise, tailored to the individual's condition, abilities, and goals, specifying intensity, frequency, volume, and exercise selection for optimal results.

9. Sarcopenia: A Major, Overlooked Health Crisis

“Why have we not given it more attention?”

Age-related muscle loss. Sarcopenia, the age-related loss of muscle mass and function, is a widespread and debilitating condition affecting millions globally, significantly increasing the risk of disability, falls, and chronic diseases.

Beyond mass. Initial definitions focused on muscle mass loss, but research now emphasizes that loss of muscle strength and power (dynapenia/kratopenia) are more critical predictors of functional decline and adverse outcomes than mass alone.

Public health gap. Despite its prevalence and impact, sarcopenia receives disproportionately less attention and funding compared to rarer conditions like anabolic steroid abuse or muscle dysmorphia. This lack of focus hinders prevention and effective treatment strategies.

10. The Ultimate Prize of Strength is Freedom to Act

“Victory is accomplishment beyond what you were capable of.”

Empowerment through ability. Strength, built through consistent effort and adaptation, provides the physical capacity to navigate the world independently. It's the ability to perform daily tasks, overcome physical challenges, and pursue desired activities without limitation.

Beyond performance. While strength enables athletic feats and physical prowess, its most profound value lies in enhancing everyday life. It's the ability to stand from a chair, carry groceries, climb stairs, or recover from a fall, maintaining autonomy and dignity.

A lifelong pursuit. The pursuit of strength is not just for athletes or the young; it's a lifelong endeavor. By consistently challenging our muscles, we invest in our future selves, preserving function and vitality into the oldest age.

11. Learning Strength Requires Support and Generosity

“A different world cannot be made by indifferent people.”

Social support is key. Acquiring and maintaining the habit of progressive resistance training often depends on social support. Encouragement from family, friends, trainers, and healthcare providers significantly influences adherence and success.

Collaboration and knowledge sharing. The history of strength training is built on shared knowledge, passed down through generations of athletes, coaches, and scientists. Figures like DeLorme, the Todds, and the Singhs advanced the field by systematizing tacit knowledge and collaborating across disciplines.

Addressing systemic barriers. Despite overwhelming evidence of its benefits, progressive resistance training is not standard medical care, often due to policy, institutional, and educational barriers. Expanding access requires collective effort and a shift in perspective to value exercise as essential medicine.

Last updated: July 8, 2025