The Anatomy of Influence

1. Influence is Literary Love Tempered by Defense

In this, my final statement on the subject, I define influence simply as literary love, tempered by defense.

Influence as a complex relationship. Literary influence is not merely a benign transmission of ideas but a dynamic interplay of admiration and resistance. Later writers are drawn to their predecessors, but they must also assert their own originality. This creates a tension that shapes the creative process.

Defense mechanisms. Writers employ various strategies to defend against the overwhelming presence of their influences. These can range from repression and selective appropriation to outright rejection and parody. The specific defenses used depend on the writer's temperament and the nature of the relationship with the precursor.

Love as the driving force. Despite the element of defense, literary love remains the fundamental force in the influence process. Writers are drawn to those who inspire them, and their work is a testament to the enduring power of this connection. This love fuels the creative misreadings and transformations that give rise to new works of art.

2. Shakespeare: The Unavoidable Founder

Shakespeare plainly is the writer of writers, and his influence upon himself has become my obsessive concern.

Shakespeare's pervasive presence. Shakespeare's influence is so vast and multifaceted that it is nearly impossible to escape. His characters, language, and dramatic structures have permeated Western culture and continue to shape the way we understand ourselves and the world around us.

The challenge of Shakespearean influence. For later writers, Shakespeare's towering achievement can be both inspiring and daunting. They must find ways to engage with his work without being overwhelmed by it. This often involves a process of creative misreading and transformation.

Shakespeare's characters as living beings. One of the most remarkable aspects of Shakespeare's genius is his ability to create characters who seem to possess an independent existence. Falstaff, Hamlet, Cleopatra, and others have become archetypes that resonate across cultures and time periods.

3. Whitman: The Evening Land's Original Voice

Walt Whitman, in the four centuries of New World literature in any Western language . . . is the strongest and most original writer of the Evening Land.

Whitman's unique position. Whitman stands as the most significant and original voice in American literature. He broke free from European traditions and forged a new poetic language that reflected the spirit of the New World.

Whitman's influence on later writers. Whitman's influence extends far beyond American borders. His poetry has inspired writers around the world, including D.H. Lawrence, Pablo Neruda, Jorge Luis Borges, and Vladimir Mayakovsky.

Whitman's inner solitude. Despite his embrace of democracy and the common man, Whitman possessed a profound sense of inner solitude. This solitude echoes Shakespeare's Edgar and finds companions in figures like Dr. Johnson, Lord Byron, and Percy Bysshe Shelley.

4. The Agon: A Central Feature of Literary Relationships

Western culture remains essentially Greek, since the rival Hebrew component has vanished into Christianity, itself indebted to the Greek genius.

Competition as a cultural force. Competition is a fundamental aspect of Western culture, dating back to ancient Greece. This agonistic spirit is evident in all areas of life, including literature.

The struggle for supremacy. Strong poets are engaged in a constant struggle for supremacy, seeking to assert their own voice and vision against the weight of tradition. This struggle is not simply about worldly power but about the integrity of their own writing self.

Agon as a source of creativity. The agonistic spirit can be a powerful source of creativity, pushing writers to innovate and break new ground. By confronting their rivals, strong poets are able to define themselves and their work.

5. The Sublime: Transport and Enlargement

Longinus’s treatise tells us that sublime literature transports and enlarges its readers.

The sublime as the supreme aesthetic virtue. The sublime is the highest form of aesthetic experience, characterized by a sense of awe, wonder, and terror. Sublime literature transports and elevates its readers, allowing them to glimpse something beyond the ordinary.

The Longinian bias. The concept of the sublime has been central to Western literary criticism since the time of Longinus. His treatise, "On the Sublime," has influenced generations of writers and critics.

The paradoxical nature of the sublime. Sublime experience is often paradoxical, involving a mixture of pleasure and pain, delight and terror. This tension is what makes it so powerful and transformative.

6. Strangeness: The Hallmark of Sublime Literature

“Strangeness” for me is the canonical quality, the mark of sublime literature.

Strangeness as a marker of quality. The addition of strangeness to beauty is a key characteristic of Romanticism and sublime literature. This strangeness can manifest in various ways, including temporal distortions, uncanny imagery, and unconventional language.

Strangeness and influence. Strangeness is closely linked to the anxiety of influence. Strong writers often seek to create a sense of estrangement from their precursors, asserting their own originality by disrupting established conventions.

Strangeness and the reader. Strangeness can also affect the reader, creating a sense of disorientation and wonder. This can lead to a deeper engagement with the text and a transformation of the reader's own consciousness.

7. The Poet-in-a-Poet: The Daimon of Creative Genius

What I mean by the poet-in-a-poet is that which, even in the greatest of poems—King Lear or Paradise Lost—is poetry itself and not something else.

Beyond ideology and circumstance. The poet-in-a-poet represents the essence of poetry, that which transcends history, ideology, and personal circumstances. It is the source of the poem's unique power and beauty.

The daimon as the source of genius. The poet-in-a-poet is often associated with the daimon, an occult self or nonrational soul that serves as the source of creative inspiration. This daimon is what allows the poet to tap into something beyond the ordinary.

Secularizing the sacred. The poet-in-a-poet secularizes the sacred, transforming religious or spiritual experiences into art. This process involves a deep subjectivity and a willingness to challenge established norms.

8. Self-Influence: The Mark of the Strongest Writers

Self-influence as I use the term is not self-reflection or self-reference, nor does it suggest either narcissism or solipsism. It is a sublime form of self-possession.

Valéry's concept of self-influence. The French poet-critic Paul Valéry emphasized the importance of self-influence, the way in which a writer's later work is shaped by their earlier creations. This process is not simply a matter of self-reflection but a dynamic interplay between different phases of a writer's career.

Self-possession as a sign of strength. Self-influence is a sign of strength, not weakness. It indicates that a writer has developed a unique and coherent vision that informs all of their work.

Shakespeare and Whitman as exemplars. Shakespeare and Whitman are prime examples of writers who were deeply influenced by their own prior work. Their later creations often revisited and transformed themes and images from their earlier writings.

9. Ellipsis: The Art of Leaving Things Out

Throughout this book I frequently contrast Shakespeare’s presence with that of Walt Whitman, the Evening Land’s answer to Old Europe and Shakespeare.

Shakespeare's mastery of ellipsis. Shakespeare was a master of ellipsis, the art of leaving things unsaid. This technique allows him to create a sense of mystery and ambiguity, inviting the audience to fill in the gaps and engage with the play on a deeper level.

The power of suggestion. By leaving certain things unstated, Shakespeare is able to suggest a vast range of possibilities. This allows his plays to resonate with audiences across cultures and time periods.

Genre breaking. Shakespeare's use of ellipsis also contributes to his breaking of genre conventions. By refusing to adhere to strict categories, he creates plays that are both complex and unpredictable.

10. The Skeptical Sublime: A Tradition of Doubt

I identify strong influences on Whitman—Lucretius, Shakespeare, and Emerson among them.

• Lucretius and the Skeptical Sublime: Lucretius's influence extends to a tradition of poets who embrace skepticism and materialism.
• Skeptical Poets: Dryden, Pater, Milton, Shelley, Tennyson, Whitman, Swinburne, and Stevens are all part of this tradition.
• The Power of Doubt: These poets find the sublime not in religious certainty, but in the vastness of the unknown.

Embracing Uncertainty. The Skeptical Sublime finds beauty and awe in the face of doubt. It acknowledges the limits of human knowledge and celebrates the power of the imagination to confront the unknown.

Finding Beauty in the Abyss. The Skeptical Sublime is not a rejection of beauty but a redefinition of it. It finds beauty in the abyss, in the vastness of space, and in the fleeting nature of human existence.

The Legacy of Lucretius. Lucretius's influence on this tradition is profound. His emphasis on materialism, skepticism, and the power of the imagination continues to resonate with poets today.

11. The American Religion: A Secular Spirituality

Throughout this book I frequently contrast Shakespeare’s presence with that of Walt Whitman, the Evening Land’s answer to Old Europe and Shakespeare.

Emerson's invention. Ralph Waldo Emerson invented the American Sublime, a secular spirituality rooted in self-reliance and the power of the individual. This tradition rejects traditional religious dogma in favor of a more personal and experiential approach to the divine.

Whitman's celebratory glory. Walt Whitman brought the American Sublime to celebratory glory, embracing the diversity and potential of the New World. His poetry is a testament to the power of the individual to connect with the universe.

Stevens's mocking and exemplifying. Wallace Stevens both mocked and exemplified the American Sublime, exploring its limits and possibilities with a skeptical and ironic eye. His poetry is a complex and nuanced reflection on the nature of belief and the power of the imagination.

12. The Power of Memory: Preserving the Canon

Read, reread, describe, evaluate, appreciate: that is the art of literary criticism for the present time.

The importance of secular canonization. A living literary tradition requires secular canonization, the process of identifying and celebrating the works that are most valuable and enduring. This process is essential for preserving the best of our cultural heritage.

The role of appreciation. Literary criticism should consist of acts of appreciation, celebrating the beauty and power of great literature. This approach is a counterpoint to the New Cynicism, which reduces literary relationships to a naked quest for worldly power.

The power of memory. In an age of information overload, the ability to internalize and memorize great works of literature is more important than ever. This act of possession allows us to carry the wisdom and beauty of the past with us into the future.

Last updated: April 14, 2025