The Annals/The Histories

1. The transition from Republic to Empire ushered in absolute power, fear, and moral decline.

After the conflict at Actium, and when it became essential to peace, that all power should be centered in one man, these great intellects passed away.

Power consolidated. Following the civil wars, Augustus centralized authority, ending the Republic's checks and balances. While initially presented as a return to stability and peace, this concentration of power in a single "Prince" fundamentally altered the state's structure. The Senate and traditional magistrates retained titles but lost real influence.

Freedom diminished. The shift to monarchy meant the loss of genuine political freedom and open discourse. Tacitus notes that under Augustus, growing sycophancy scared away independent historians, and under subsequent emperors, history was either falsified through terror or written under the irritation of hatred. The ability to think and speak freely became a rare happiness enjoyed only in specific, brief periods.

Moral decay. This new system fostered a climate of fear and ambition that eroded traditional Roman morality. Citizens, especially those of high rank, were forced into abject flattery and servility to survive and advance. The pursuit of wealth and power often superseded virtue, leading to a decline in public and private integrity as the state became increasingly corrupt.

2. Imperial power corrupted rulers and their inner circles, breeding sycophancy and treachery.

Never surely did more terrible calamities of the Roman People, or evidence more conclusive, prove that the Gods take no thought for our happiness, but only for our punishment.

Corruption's reach. Absolute power profoundly corrupted the emperors, leading to cruelty, paranoia, and debauchery. This corruption extended to their inner circles, particularly freedmen and favorites like Sejanus and Tigellinus, who wielded immense influence and engaged in ruthless intrigues for personal gain. The court became a hotbed of vice and conspiracy.

Flattery's poison. The necessity of flattering the emperor and his favorites created a culture of insincerity and moral compromise. Senators and knights vied with each other in proposing extravagant and often shameful honors, demonstrating their servility. Tacitus notes Tiberius's own disgust at this abject behavior, even as he benefited from it.

Treachery as a tool. Within this environment, treachery became a common means of survival and advancement. Friends betrayed friends, family members plotted against each other, and subordinates turned on their commanders. The pursuit of power and wealth justified any act, no matter how heinous, leading to a pervasive atmosphere of suspicion and danger.

3. The military, especially the Praetorian Guard and legions, became kingmakers and sources of instability.

...now had been divulged that secret of the empire, that emperors could be made elsewhere than at Rome.

Power of the sword. The concentration of military power in the hands of the emperor meant that control of the army was key to maintaining or seizing the throne. The Praetorian Guard in Rome, initially intended for the emperor's protection, became a decisive force in imperial succession, capable of elevating or destroying rulers.

Legions' influence. Legions stationed in the provinces also realized their collective power. Their loyalty shifts could initiate civil wars, as seen with the armies in Germany and the East. Generals who commanded these legions gained significant influence and could become potential rivals or kingmakers.

Military indiscipline. Civil strife and the promise of donatives eroded military discipline. Soldiers became more loyal to their commanders or to the prospect of plunder than to the state. Mutinies, once rare, became more frequent, and the line between soldier and brigand blurred, contributing to widespread violence and instability throughout the empire.

4. Accusations of treason and the rise of informers served as tools of repression and personal gain.

Henceforth our chains became more galling, and spies were set over us, stimulated by rewards under the Papia Poppaea law...

Law as a weapon. The law of treason (maiestas), originally intended to protect the state, was expanded under the emperors to include words and even thoughts deemed disrespectful to the ruler or his family. This transformed the legal system into a tool for suppressing dissent and eliminating perceived threats.

The informer class. This climate fostered the rise of professional informers (delatores), who were rewarded with wealth and status for bringing accusations, often based on flimsy evidence or outright falsehoods. This created a pervasive atmosphere of fear and suspicion, as no one felt safe from denunciation.

Targeting the elite. Informers frequently targeted wealthy or prominent citizens, as their convictions resulted in the confiscation of property, benefiting both the accuser and the imperial treasury. This system decimated the ranks of the old nobility and further consolidated the emperor's power by removing potential rivals and enriching his supporters.

5. Within the Imperial family, ambition, jealousy, and violence were rampant, leading to tragic fates.

...torn by what persecutions, entangled by what plots, I have ended by the worst of deaths the most miserable of lives.

Internal strife. Despite holding the highest power, the Julio-Claudian family was plagued by internal conflict. Jealousy over succession, personal slights, and the pursuit of influence led to a series of poisonings, exiles, and murders within the imperial household.

Tragic figures. Figures like Germanicus, Agrippina the Elder, and Britannicus, popular and potentially virtuous, fell victim to the machinations of those seeking power, particularly Livia, Sejanus, and Messalina. Their fates highlight the brutal reality of imperial politics, where even close family ties offered no protection.

Cycle of violence. The violence within the family created a cycle of fear and retaliation. Nero's murder of his mother, Agrippina the Younger, was a culmination of years of strained relations and power struggles, demonstrating the ultimate breakdown of familial bonds under the pressure of absolute power.

6. Foreign wars and provincial administration were deeply intertwined with domestic power struggles.

...the ocean and remote rivers were the boundaries of the empire; the legions, provinces, fleets, all things were linked together; there was law for the citizens; there was respect shown to the allies.

Provincial importance. The vastness of the Roman Empire meant that control of provinces and their legions was crucial. Governors held significant power, and their loyalty or rebellion could directly impact the emperor's stability, as seen in the revolts in Germany, Africa, and the East.

Military campaigns. Campaigns against foreign enemies, such as in Germany, Britain, and Parthia, provided opportunities for generals to gain military glory and build loyalty among their troops, sometimes making them potential threats to the emperor. Successes abroad were often celebrated in Rome, but could also fuel imperial jealousy.

Exploitation and unrest. Provincial administration was frequently marked by the rapacity and arrogance of governors and tax collectors, leading to unrest and rebellion among subject populations. While some emperors attempted reforms, the systemic issues of corruption and the demands of the central government often resulted in the exploitation of the provinces.

7. Disasters, public spectacles, and popular unrest reflected the state of Rome and its rulers.

...the people, who craved amusement, and feared, always their chief anxiety, scarcity of corn, should he be absent.

Vulnerability of the capital. Rome, despite its grandeur, was vulnerable to disasters like fires, floods, and famine, often exacerbated by poor governance or imperial neglect. These events caused widespread suffering and highlighted the reliance on provincial resources, particularly for grain supply.

Spectacles and control. Emperors used public games and spectacles to entertain and control the populace, diverting attention from political issues and fostering a sense of shared identity or loyalty. However, these events could also become sites of unrest or demonstrations of public opinion, as seen in the reactions to Otho and Vitellius.

Popular sentiment. The mood of the Roman populace, though often fickle and easily swayed by flattery or immediate concerns like food prices, could also reflect deeper anxieties about the state of the empire and the character of its rulers. Their reactions, from applause to rioting, provided a barometer of the political climate.

8. Amidst widespread corruption and tyranny, individuals occasionally demonstrated virtue, courage, or resistance.

...the last infirmity cast off even by the wise.

Acts of defiance. Despite the pervasive fear and servility, some individuals chose to resist or maintain their integrity. Senators like Thrasea Paetus and Helvidius Priscus openly challenged imperial authority through their words and actions, even at the cost of their lives.

Loyalty and sacrifice. Examples of unwavering loyalty, such as the centurion Sempronius Densus defending Piso or the fidelity of slaves under torture, stood in stark contrast to the widespread treachery. These acts, though sometimes futile in the face of overwhelming power, were remembered and admired.

Philosophical fortitude. Stoic philosophers like Seneca and Musonius Rufus, despite their complex relationships with the emperors, sought to live by their principles and faced death with remarkable composure. Their examples provided a moral counterpoint to the prevailing corruption and demonstrated the power of inner conviction.

9. The year 69 AD marked a chaotic period of civil war and rapid imperial succession.

I am entering on the history of a period rich in disasters, frightful in its wars, torn by civil strife, and even in peace full of horrors.

Year of four emperors. Following Nero's death, the empire plunged into civil war as multiple contenders vied for the throne. Galba, Otho, and Vitellius rose and fell in quick succession, their reigns marked by violence, military conflict, and instability.

Military conflict. The struggle involved legions from across the empire, bringing the horrors of civil war to Italy and even Rome itself. Battles like Bedriacum resulted in massive casualties, highlighting the devastating cost of the power struggle.

Breakdown of order. The rapid changes in leadership and the ongoing conflict led to a breakdown of law and order. Soldiers engaged in plunder and violence, and the capital experienced periods of chaos and destruction, including the burning of the Capitol.

10. The Flavian dynasty emerged from the turmoil, bringing a new era after the Julio-Claudians and the year of four emperors.

...fortune was now preparing the origin and rise of a new dynasty...

Vespasian's rise. Amidst the chaos of 69 AD, Vespasian, a general commanding legions in Judaea, emerged as a strong contender. Supported by the armies of the East and skilled advisors like Mucianus, he successfully challenged Vitellius.

End of the Julio-Claudians. The Flavian victory marked the end of the Julio-Claudian dynasty and the turbulent year of civil war. Vespasian's accession brought a degree of stability and a different style of leadership, though Tacitus notes that even he was eventually affected by the corrupting influence of power.

Legacy of the period. The events of this era profoundly impacted the Roman Empire, revealing the fragility of imperial power, the critical role of the military, and the enduring struggle between virtue and vice in the face of absolute authority. Tacitus's account serves as a stark warning about the dangers of unchecked power and the resilience of the human spirit.

Last updated: May 18, 2025