The Celts

1. The traditional view of Celts as central European barbarians is being challenged.

But one of the reasons I find them so intriguing is that they exist right on the edge of history, and we’re still struggling to understand them and to find out who they really were.

Beyond the stereotype. For centuries, our understanding of the Celts has been heavily influenced by classical Greek and Roman writers who often portrayed them as uncivilized, warlike barbarians living on the fringes of the civilized Mediterranean world. This outsider perspective, while providing the first written accounts, was often biased, serving Roman propaganda needs or simply reflecting a lack of understanding of complex non-literate societies. The term "Celt" itself was applied inconsistently by classical authors, sometimes referring to specific tribes and other times to a vast, ill-defined region.

A shifting definition. The modern concept of "Celtic" identity, particularly linked to language and culture in Britain, Ireland, and Brittany, was popularized much later, in the 18th century. This created a disconnect between the classical "Celtica" (often centered in central Europe and Gaul) and the modern "Celtic nations" on the Atlantic fringe. This historical baggage has complicated archaeological interpretation, leading to assumptions about cultural uniformity and origins that are now being questioned by new evidence.

A paradigm shift. Recent research across multiple disciplines – archaeology, linguistics, and genetics – is fundamentally transforming our understanding of the Celts. The old model of a single origin point in central Europe from which people and culture spread is being dismantled. Instead, a more complex picture is emerging, highlighting regional diversity, long-distance connections, and challenging the very notion of a monolithic "Celtic" identity tied neatly to a specific material culture or ethnic group.

2. Archaeology reveals complex, wealthy Iron Age societies north of the Alps.

But the Hochdorf Prince, who was buried in the sixth century BC, doesn’t seem to be a barbarian. Far from it.

Princely wealth. Archaeological discoveries like the Hochdorf Prince burial in Germany (6th century BC) showcase the sophistication and wealth of Iron Age elites north of the Alps. This tomb contained lavish gold jewelry, imported Mediterranean feasting equipment (Greek cauldron, Italian-influenced bronze couch), and personal items, indicating high status and extensive trade connections, not a simple barbarian existence. The Bettelbühl Princess burial, also in Germany (583 BC), further reveals elite status for women, with gold ornaments and evidence of horse ownership, challenging gender stereotypes from classical texts.

Early urbanism. Sites like Heuneburg on the Danube (Germany) demonstrate the emergence of large, complex settlements, potentially the first cities north of the Alps, as early as the 6th century BC.

• Heuneburg featured sophisticated defenses, including mud-brick walls with Mediterranean influences.
• LIDAR surveys revealed extensive outer settlements, suggesting a population of at least 5,000.
• These centers were hubs of trade, craft production, and political power, controlling resources and exchange networks.

Beyond villages. These findings contradict classical portrayals of Celts living solely in scattered, unwalled villages. They reveal organized, stratified societies with powerful elites who could mobilize labor for monumental construction and participate in long-distance trade networks, demonstrating a level of social and economic complexity previously underestimated.

3. Mediterranean and Eastern influences shaped early Celtic elites and settlements.

The Hochdorf Prince seems a long way from the belligerent and barbaric Celts described by the classical writers.

Trade and luxury. Early Iron Age elites in central Europe, particularly during the Hallstatt period (8th-6th centuries BC), actively sought and displayed Mediterranean luxury goods. Wine and feasting equipment (amphorae, cauldrons, drinking vessels) were highly prized imports from Greek and Etruscan city-states, becoming symbols of status and power. This trade flowed north via major rivers like the Rhone and Danube.

Architectural inspiration. The defenses at sites like Heuneburg show clear architectural influences from the Mediterranean, such as the use of mud-brick walls and bastions, suggesting contact with or even the employment of Mediterranean architects. This indicates a willingness and ability among Celtic leaders to adopt foreign ideas and technologies for prestige and defense.

Horses and status. Influences also came from the east, particularly the Pontic steppe. The importance of horses, already present in the Bronze Age Urnfield culture, intensified in the early Iron Age, becoming a key marker of elite status. Burial practices, such as the inclusion of horse gear (like the Bettelbühl Princess's chamfron) and even wagon burials, echo traditions found among eastern nomadic groups, suggesting the flow of ideas and possibly people from the steppe into central Europe.

4. Britain and Ireland were deeply connected to continental Europe via maritime networks, not just invasions.

Rather than invasion, Clark suggested, it could be that we’re seeing a familiar pattern: the elite were engaging in conspicuous consumption, including adopting exotic styles.

Challenging "invasion neurosis". For decades, archaeological changes in Iron Age Britain and Ireland were explained by waves of invasions from the continent (Hallstatt, Marnian, Belgic). However, critics like Grahame Clark argued that the evidence, such as continuity in house styles and local craft traditions, didn't support mass population replacement. Instead, changes often reflected the adoption of new styles by native elites.

Atlantic connectivity. Barry Cunliffe and others emphasize the long-standing maritime networks linking Britain and Ireland with coastal communities in France, Belgium, Spain, and Portugal since the Neolithic. These sea routes facilitated the exchange of goods, ideas, and possibly individuals (traders, artisans, marriage partners), leading to shared cultural traits without large-scale migrations.

Two-way street. This wasn't just a one-way flow of influence from the continent. Evidence suggests innovations also originated in Britain and Ireland and spread east, such as certain types of Bronze Age gold torcs and the design of the Gundlingen sword, which may have originated from British prototypes. This highlights the dynamic and interconnected nature of the Atlantic zone.

5. La Tène culture spread across Europe through exchange, not solely mass migration.

It seems that the middle of the first millennium BC was a time of major economic and political upheaval in central Europe.

A new artistic style. Emerging in central Europe around the mid-5th century BC, the La Tène culture is characterized by a distinctive art style, different from the preceding Hallstatt period, featuring swirling, abstract, and often zoomorphic or anthropomorphic motifs. This style drew inspiration from Mediterranean art (Etruscan, Greek) but transformed it into something uniquely Celtic, sometimes incorporating shape-shifting themes seen in later myths.

Shift in power. The rise of La Tène coincided with the decline and abandonment of the early Hallstatt city-states like Heuneburg. New centers of power emerged further north, and elite burials shifted focus, emphasizing warrior status alongside wealth, though retaining elements like funerary carts and drinking equipment.

Ideas on the move. While some localized movements of people occurred (like the Arras culture in Yorkshire with its chariot burials, possibly a small influx from the continent), the widespread adoption of La Tène material culture across Europe is better explained by the diffusion of ideas and styles through existing trade and social networks rather than mass migrations. Artisans copied and adapted foreign designs, creating regional variations of the style, as seen in the exquisite metalwork of Britain and Ireland, like the Snettisham torcs.

6. Classical accounts of Celtic practices, like sacrifice and headhunting, are often biased and hard to verify archaeologically.

These images are indeed compelling – but how much can we trust such visions of the Celts?

Outsider perspective. Classical writers like Caesar, Strabo, Diodorus Siculus, and Lucan described various "barbaric" Celtic practices, including human sacrifice (wicker man, impalement, hanging) and headhunting. These accounts, often based on earlier sources like Posidonius, may have been exaggerated or fabricated to portray Celts as uncivilized and justify Roman conquest.

Archaeological ambiguity. Finding clear archaeological evidence to corroborate these accounts is challenging. While sites like Ribemont-sur-Ancre in France show undeniable evidence of decapitation and the manipulation of human remains (stacked bones, absence of skulls), interpreting the meaning behind these practices is difficult. They could represent ritual sacrifice, war trophies, or simply unusual, but not necessarily sinister, funerary rites different from our own.

Lack of consistency. The alleged evidence for such practices is not uniform across the vast area historically associated with Celts. For example, claims of headhunting and sacrifice at Gordion in Anatolia are based on ambiguous skeletal evidence and are less convincing than the findings at Ribemont
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Last updated: May 1, 2025