The Concept of the Political

1. The Political is Defined by the Friend-Enemy Distinction

The specific political distinction to which political actions and motives can be reduced is that between friend and enemy.

Core of the political. Carl Schmitt argues that the essence of the political lies in the distinction between friend and enemy. This distinction is not merely a metaphor but a fundamental aspect of human association. It signifies the potential for conflict and the need for groups to define themselves in relation to others.

Not moral or aesthetic. The friend-enemy distinction is not based on moral, economic, or aesthetic criteria. It is a purely political distinction that arises from the possibility of conflict. The enemy is not necessarily evil or ugly, but simply the other, the outsider, the one with whom a real possibility of conflict exists.

Existential decision. This distinction requires an existential decision about who belongs and who does not. This decision is the foundation of political action and the basis for the formation of political entities. Without this distinction, there is no political life.

2. The State's Essence Lies in the Monopoly of Political Decision

The concept of the state presupposes the concept of the political.

State as decision-maker. The state, according to Schmitt, is defined by its capacity to make political decisions, particularly in times of crisis. This includes the power to declare a state of exception and to suspend the normal legal order. The state's sovereignty rests on its ability to make these ultimate decisions.

Sovereignty and exception. The sovereign is he who decides on the exception. This means that the state's authority is most clearly revealed in moments of crisis when it must act decisively to protect its existence. The ability to make these decisions is what distinguishes the state from other forms of social organization.

Political unity. The state is the ultimate political entity because it represents the highest level of political unity. It is the entity that can demand the ultimate sacrifice from its members: the willingness to die for the political unit. This capacity for sacrifice is a key indicator of the state's power and legitimacy.

3. Liberalism Seeks to Neutralize and Depoliticize

Liberalism tries to transform the political into the ethical, the economic, and the technical.

Depoliticization project. Schmitt critiques liberalism for its attempt to neutralize and depoliticize various aspects of life. Liberalism seeks to replace political decisions with ethical, economic, or technical solutions, thereby eliminating the need for political judgment and the friend-enemy distinction.

Neutral domains. Liberalism promotes the idea of neutral domains, such as economics or technology, where rational solutions can be found without resorting to political conflict. This leads to a weakening of the state and a decline in political engagement.

Critique of universalism. Schmitt argues that this attempt to create a universal, neutral order is ultimately a dangerous illusion. Politics cannot be eliminated, only suppressed, and the attempt to do so can lead to even more violent forms of conflict. The focus on individual rights and economic prosperity obscures the fundamental political realities of power and conflict.

4. Humanity and Neutrality are Deceptive Concepts in Politics

Whoever invokes humanity wants to cheat.

Instrumental use of humanity. Schmitt warns against the invocation of "humanity" as a political concept. He argues that it is often used as a tool to delegitimize enemies and justify violence. By portraying the enemy as inhuman, it becomes easier to justify their destruction.

No neutral ground. The idea of neutrality in politics is also deceptive. Every political action is inherently partisan and involves taking sides. There is no neutral ground from which to judge political conflicts. Claims of neutrality often mask hidden political agendas.

Specific examples:

• Humanitarian interventions are often justified in the name of protecting humanity, but they are always driven by specific political interests.
• International law is often presented as a neutral framework for resolving conflicts, but it is always shaped by the interests of powerful states.

5. The Political is Existential, Not Normative

The political is not an ideal, but a reality.

Reality of conflict. Schmitt emphasizes that the political is an existential reality, not a normative ideal. It is rooted in the possibility of conflict and the need for groups to defend their existence. Attempts to impose moral or ethical standards on politics are misguided and dangerous.

Decisionism. Political decisions are not based on rational calculations or universal principles, but on concrete judgments made in specific situations. This decisionistic aspect of politics is essential to understanding its nature.

Rejection of utopianism. Schmitt rejects utopian visions of a world without conflict. He argues that such visions are not only unrealistic but also dangerous because they ignore the fundamental realities of power and human nature. The political is an inherent part of the human condition.

6. The State Requires a Capacity for Discrimination

The state is the political entity that possesses the monopoly of physical violence.

Discrimination and violence. The state's ability to discriminate between friend and enemy is closely linked to its monopoly on the legitimate use of physical violence. This power is necessary to maintain order and protect the political unit from external threats.

Legitimate violence. The state's violence is legitimate because it is exercised in the name of the political unit and for the purpose of self-preservation. This distinguishes it from other forms of violence, such as criminal violence or private feuds.

Examples of state violence:

• War
• Law enforcement
• Capital punishment

The state's capacity for violence is a necessary evil, according to Schmitt. It is the price of political order and the protection of the political unit.

7. The Concept of the Political Presupposes the Potential for War

War is the most extreme political means.

War as possibility. The concept of the political presupposes the potential for war. War is not merely an aberration or a failure of diplomacy, but an inherent possibility in the relations between political entities. The possibility of war shapes political decisions and defines the limits of political action.

Real enemy. The existence of a real enemy is essential for the political. Without an enemy, there is no need for political action or for the state to exercise its power. The enemy is the one who threatens the existence of the political unit.

Examples of political entities:

• States
• Nations
• Religious groups

These entities are all capable of engaging in political conflict and potentially waging war against one another.

8. The Political Cannot Be Eliminated Through Morality or Economics

The attempt to eliminate the political through morality or economics is a dangerous illusion.

Limits of morality. Schmitt argues that morality cannot eliminate the political. Moral principles are often used to justify political actions, but they cannot replace the need for political judgment and the friend-enemy distinction.

Limits of economics. Similarly, economics cannot eliminate the political. Economic interdependence may reduce the likelihood of conflict, but it cannot eliminate the underlying political realities of power and competition.

Examples of failed attempts:

• The League of Nations was an attempt to create a moral order that would prevent war, but it ultimately failed because it ignored the underlying political realities.
• The European Union is an attempt to create an economic community that would foster peace, but it has not eliminated political tensions between member states.

9. The Essence of the Political is Rooted in Human Nature

The political is a fundamental aspect of human existence.

Human nature and conflict. Schmitt believes that the political is rooted in human nature. Human beings are inherently prone to conflict, and this tendency cannot be eliminated through social engineering or moral persuasion.

Dangerousness of man. The political arises from the "dangerousness of man," the fact that human beings are capable of violence and aggression. This dangerousness necessitates the existence of the state and the exercise of political power.

Examples of human conflict:

• Wars
• Revolutions
• Civil unrest

These conflicts are all manifestations of the underlying political realities of power and human nature.

10. The Political is a Fundamental Aspect of Human Existence

If a people no longer possesses the energy or the will to maintain itself in the sphere of politics, the latter will not thereby vanish from the world. Only a weak people will disappear.

Enduring nature of politics. Even if a particular society attempts to eliminate the political, it will not disappear from the world. Other political entities will continue to exist, and they will pose a threat to the existence of the depoliticized society.

Survival and power. The ability to engage in political action and to defend oneself against enemies is essential for the survival of any political unit. Those who abandon the political will ultimately be dominated by those who embrace it.

Examples of political survival:

• States that maintain a strong military and a clear sense of national identity are more likely to survive in a world of political conflict.
• Societies that cultivate political virtues, such as courage, prudence, and patriotism, are better equipped to defend themselves against external threats.

Last updated: May 9, 2025