The Conversation

1. Racism: A Problem of Belief, Not Just Fact

Beliefs, not facts, lead to choices (for example, hiring decisions), which lead to outcomes (for example, economic disparities).

Beliefs shape reality. Many people, particularly White Americans, do not believe that racism against people of color is a significant problem. This lack of belief, or "racism credence," is a major obstacle to progress, as it influences choices and actions that perpetuate inequality. For example, many White people believe that discrimination against Whites is as big a problem as discrimination against Blacks, or even a bigger problem.

Cognitive shortcuts. Our brains use mental shortcuts, like the availability heuristic and anchoring bias, which can skew our perceptions of reality. The availability heuristic makes us overweight information that is readily available in our minds, such as the few highly visible Black celebrities, leading to the false impression that Black people are generally wealthy and successful. Anchoring bias makes us compare the present to the past, leading to the false conclusion that Black people have made more progress than they actually have.

Motivated reasoning. People often have a hard time "seeing" things that they don't want to see. Motivated reasoning protects our cherished beliefs and worldviews, leading us to reject information that challenges our assumptions. For example, many White people deny the existence of anti-Black racism because they want to see themselves as good people, and the notion that they benefit from White privilege undermines their sense of personal merit.

2. Racism Defined: Beyond Intent to Impact

Racism occurs when individuals or institutions show more favorable evaluation or treatment of an individual or group based on race or ethnicity.

Racism is about action, not identity. Racism is more about what people do than who they are. It's about the consequences of behaviors, not the traits of the person. This means that anyone can engage in racist behavior, regardless of their personal values or intentions.

Racism is both individual and institutional. Racism is not just about individual acts of prejudice or discrimination, but also about the way in which society is structured and organized. It includes both individual biases and systemic policies and practices that differentially advantage some racial groups over others.

Racism resides in the delta. Racism is often subtle and difficult to detect, because it resides in the difference in how people from different races are evaluated or treated under similar circumstances. For example, a White person may be given the benefit of the doubt, while a Black person is not. This differential treatment often happens unintentionally, without conscious awareness.

3. Privilege: Institutional vs. Individual

Institutional privilege is part of the system, like a current in a stream, and is impossible to separate from our social world.

Two types of privilege. Individual privilege refers to advantages that individuals obtain for themselves through merit or luck, while institutional privilege refers to advantages inherited through social structures and policies. While both types of privilege exist, institutional privilege is more powerful and pervasive.

Privilege mismatch. People of color, even those with high levels of individual privilege, often lack institutional privilege, which creates a "mismatch" that can lead to discrimination and exclusion. For example, Oprah Winfrey, despite her immense wealth and success, has still experienced racism in elite spaces.

Institutional privilege trumps individual privilege. Studies show that institutional privilege, not individual privilege, often determines which job candidate prevails. For example, White applicants with felony convictions often receive more callbacks than Black applicants with clean records. This demonstrates the power of institutional privilege to overshadow individual merit.

4. Systemic Racism: The Current, Not Just the Fish

Racism is not just about movements and actions of the individual fish; it’s also about the hydrodynamics of the stream itself (i.e., the current).

Social hierarchies as mountains. Social hierarchies are often shaped like mountains, with a wide base and narrow summit. These hierarchies are maintained through legitimizing myths and institutional terror.

Legitimizing myths. These are widely held but often fictitious beliefs that explain why people occupy different positions of power within the social hierarchy. Meritocracy, the idea that people determine their own outcomes through talent and hard work, is an example of a legitimizing myth.

Institutional terror. When people stop believing in the myths, institutional terror actively maintains the social hierarchy through the use of force, intimidation, violence, or oppressive legal policies and practices. Examples include slavery, Jim Crow laws, and mass incarceration.

5. Threat: The Fuel of Racial Hierarchy

The very existence of racism violates the notion that the world is fair and just, which puts people in a tizzy.

Structural threat. This occurs when the racial hierarchy or status quo is disrupted, such as when a Black person achieves success or when White people are no longer the majority. This can lead to increased racism and discrimination.

Psychological threat. This occurs when an individual's sense of competence, certainty, status, or self-worth is compromised. This can lead to motivated reasoning, where people reject information that challenges their beliefs, and to increased prejudice.

Authoritarianism. People who score high on right-wing authoritarianism (RWA) have a strong desire for order, reverence for authority, and affinity for traditional values. They are more likely to support leaders who emphasize security and structure, and they are more likely to be prejudiced against out-groups.

6. Bias: Psychological and Evolutionary Roots

What is wired is tribalism—the propensity to form a distinction between “us” and “them.”

Optimal distinctiveness. Humans are drawn to social groups that simultaneously fulfill two conflicting needs: a need for assimilation (belonging) and a need for differentiation (uniqueness). This leads to the formation of medium-sized groups of similar others.

In-group favoritism. Humans have a strong tendency to favor their own group over out-groups, even when the basis for group membership is arbitrary. This tendency is rooted in our evolutionary history, where group membership enhanced survival.

Cognitive shortcuts. Our brains are wired to save energy, leading us to use categories and stereotypes when perceiving others. This can lead to biased judgments and decisions, as we tend to overweight information that is readily available or that confirms our existing beliefs.

7. Race: A Social Construct, Not Biological Reality

All of the 7.8 billion human “cousins” alive today have a 99.9 percent overlap in their DNA.

Genetic similarity. All humans share 99.9% of their DNA, and the genetic differences between individuals of the same "race" are far greater than the average differences between any two racial groups. Race is not a biological reality but a social construct.

Skin color as adaptation. Skin color is a cline, or continuous spectrum, that gradually changes across the human geographical range. It is an adaptation to UV radiation, with darker skin providing protection against the sun and lighter skin facilitating vitamin D synthesis.

The myth of racial purity. There is no such thing as racial purity. All human tribes have some degree of admixture with other human groups. The notion of "pure" races is a social construct, not a biological reality.

8. Apathy: The Silent Enabler of Racism

Racism is perpetuated to the extent that people are willing to turn a blind eye to racist systems.

Apathy vs. empathy. Apathy is a lack of emotional or behavioral response to racism, while empathy involves experiencing the same emotions as the target of discrimination. Apathy is a major obstacle to progress, as it allows racism to persist without challenge.

Aversive racism. Many White people believe that they would never treat someone differently because of their race, but they still engage in subtle acts of racial discrimination, particularly in ambiguous situations. This is due to a combination of egalitarian values and unconscious negative feelings toward people of color.

Moral credentials. White people who support one Black person, such as Barack Obama, may feel that they have earned "moral credentials," giving them greater license to discriminate against other Black people without fear of being labeled racist.

9. Morality: Fairness, Harm, and Beyond

Racism is a textbook example of harm because it hurts people of color in every sense imaginable—psychologically, physically, financially, and professionally.

Fairness vs. equality. Fairness does not always mean treating everyone the same. Sometimes, fairness requires treating people differently to account for different needs or obstacles. Equality means everyone gets the same, while equity means that outputs vary based on some input variable.

Harm as a moral foundation. Almost everyone agrees that good people do not inflict harm on others. Racism is a clear violation of this principle, as it causes psychological, physical, financial, and professional harm to people of color.

Moral foundations theory. This theory proposes five basic foundations of morality: fairness, harm, loyalty, authority, and purity. While fairness and harm are universal, the other three foundations are more variable and can sometimes conflict with the first two.

10. Action: Individual, Cultural, and Institutional Change

Ultimately, people are the regulators and agents of social transformation, which means if enough people want change, then it will happen.

Individual action. Individuals can combat racism by increasing their awareness, challenging their biases, and engaging in intergroup contact. They can also practice self-affirmation, which increases their ability to see societal racism.

Cultural change. Social norms and expectations play a powerful role in shaping behavior. By creating a culture that values diversity, equity, and inclusion, organizations can reduce racism and promote positive social change.

Institutional reform. Systemic racism requires systemic interventions, such as changes to hiring practices, promotion policies, and resource allocation. Leaders must be willing to challenge the status quo and create policies that promote racial equity.

Last updated: January 14, 2025