The Craft of Research

1. Research is a Conversation: Join the Scholarly Dialogue

Central in every chapter is the advice to side with your readers, to imagine how they will judge what you have written.

Research as a social act. Research isn't a solitary endeavor but a conversation with other researchers, past and present. Every time you read a book or article, you're engaging in a silent dialogue with its author and the broader scholarly community. Your own research adds your voice to this ongoing exchange.

Understanding reader expectations. Effective research writing involves anticipating and meeting the needs of your readers. This means understanding their existing knowledge, their interests, and their potential objections. By addressing these factors, you create a "rhetorical community" of shared values.

Genres as shared values. Different research communities have their own established genres or forms of writing. Learning these genres is essential for participating in the conversation and demonstrating your understanding of the field's values and practices. By mastering these forms, you become a member of the research community.

2. From Interest to Inquiry: Formulating Research Questions

Nothing contributes more to successful research than your commitment to it, and nothing teaches you more about how to think than making a successful (or even unsuccessful) argument using it.

From topic to question. A research topic is more than just a subject area; it's a specific interest framed as a question. This question should be focused enough to allow for in-depth exploration and analysis within the given time and resources.

Questioning the topic. To transform a broad topic into a focused research question, systematically ask questions about its history, composition, and categories. Consider positive and negative questions, as well as speculative "what if" scenarios.

The "So What?" test. The most significant question you can ask about your research question is "So what?" Why would others find the answer to this question important? How will it contribute to a broader understanding of the topic? Answering this question is crucial for justifying the value of your research.

3. Defining the Problem: The Heart of Research

To make your research matter, you must address a problem that others in your community—your readers—also want to solve.

Practical vs. conceptual problems. Research addresses two main types of problems: practical problems, which involve taking action to change the world, and conceptual problems, which involve improving our understanding of the world. Academic research typically focuses on conceptual problems.

Structure of a research problem. Both practical and conceptual problems share a common structure: a condition and undesirable consequences. In a conceptual problem, the condition is a lack of knowledge or understanding, and the consequence is the inability to understand something else of greater significance.

Finding a good research problem. A good research problem is one whose solution makes others see the world in a new way. It's important to identify and refine your problem by seeking help from colleagues, looking for contradictions in your sources, and examining your own conclusions.

4. Navigating Sources: A Strategic Approach

Without trustworthy published research, we all would be locked in the opinions of the moment, prisoners of what we alone experience or dupes to whatever we're told.

Primary, secondary, and tertiary sources. Sources are categorized into primary (original materials), secondary (scholarly analyses), and tertiary (general overviews). While tertiary sources can be helpful for initial exploration, scholarly arguments should rely on secondary sources.

The library as a portal. Libraries offer a wealth of resources, including research guides, reference works, and online databases. Librarians are valuable resources for refining search parameters and identifying relevant materials.

Strategic searching. Effective searching involves using keywords, exploring online databases, browsing library catalogs, and following bibliographic trails. Citation indexing can also be used to identify sources that cite a particular work.

5. Engaging Sources: Reading, Questioning, and Note-Taking

By the time you fix your ideas in writing, they are so familiar to you that you need help to see them not for what you want them to be but for what they really are.

Active reading. Experienced researchers engage with sources actively, questioning claims, identifying contradictions, and formulating their own responses. This involves reading generously at first, then critically.

Note-taking strategies. Effective note-taking involves recording complete bibliographic information, distinguishing between quotations, paraphrases, and summaries, and capturing the context of the source material.

Finding a problem in sources. Look for claims that seem puzzling, inaccurate, or simplistic. You're more likely to find a research problem when you disagree with a source, but you can also find one in sources you agree with.

6. Building Arguments: The Core of Research Writing

Writing up your research is, finally, thinking with and for your readers.

The elements of an argument. A research argument consists of a claim, reasons, evidence, acknowledgment and response, and warrants. These elements are answers to the questions readers will ask.

Supporting the claim. The core of an argument is the claim, which is supported by reasons and evidence. Reasons are statements that lead readers to accept the claim, while evidence is the data that supports the reasons.

The importance of warrants. Warrants are general principles that connect reasons to claims. They are often unstated but are essential for ensuring that readers understand the logic of the argument.

7. Claims, Reasons, and Evidence: The Pillars of Argument

If you learn to do research well now, you gain an immense advantage in the kind of research you will do later, no matter where you do it.

Types of claims. Claims can be categorized as claims of fact, definition, cause, evaluation, or action. The type of claim you make will determine the kind of evidence you need to support it.

Specificity and significance. A good claim should be specific enough to guide your research and significant enough to warrant an argument. It should also be contestable, meaning that reasonable people could disagree with it.

Qualifying claims. To enhance your credibility, qualify your claims by acknowledging their limits and using hedges to indicate the degree of certainty. This shows readers that you are making an honest case.

8. Acknowledging and Responding: Engaging with Counterarguments

By the time you fix your ideas in writing, they are so familiar to you that you need help to see them not for what you want them to be but for what they really are.

Anticipating reader questions. A strong argument anticipates and addresses the questions, objections, and alternative views that readers are likely to raise. This demonstrates that you have considered the issue from all sides.

Finding alternative views. Look to your sources to identify alternative views. Note where you disagree with your sources and where they disagree with each other.

Deciding what to acknowledge. Prioritize acknowledging plausible weaknesses in your argument, alternative lines of argument, and alternative evidence that readers may know.

9. Warrants: Making the Logic Explicit

The traditional forms that readers expect are more than just empty vessels into which you must pour your ideas.

Warrants as underlying principles. Warrants are general principles that connect reasons to claims. They are often unstated but are essential for ensuring that readers understand the logic of the argument.

Testing warrants. To test the soundness of a warrant, consider whether it is reasonable, sufficiently limited, superior to competing warrants, appropriate to the field, and able to cover the reason and claim.

When to state warrants. State your warrants when your readers will not understand your reasoning without them, when you use a principle of reasoning that is new or controversial, or when you make a claim that readers will resist.

10. Planning and Drafting: From Idea to Paper

Experienced researchers know that they most often produce a sound paper when they have a plan, no matter how rough, even if only in their heads.

Sketching a working introduction. A working introduction should establish a context, state the problem, and offer a response. It should also include key terms that will run through the paper.

Planning the body. The body of the paper should be organized around the reasons supporting the main claim. Each section should have a clear point and be supported by evidence, acknowledgments, and warrants.

Avoiding flawed plans. Avoid organizing your paper as a narrative of your thinking, a patchwork of your sources, or a direct mapping of the assignment.

11. Revising for Clarity: Style and Organization

Writing up your research is, finally, thinking with and for your readers.

Thinking like a reader. Effective revision involves reading your paper as your readers will, anticipating their questions and concerns. This means focusing on the overall organization, the coherence of sections, and the clarity of sentences.

Revising the frame. Ensure that readers can easily identify the introduction, conclusion, and main point of your paper. The main point should be stated clearly in both the introduction and conclusion.

Revising the argument. Check that each reason supports the main claim and that each section is supported by sufficient evidence. Also, ensure that you have acknowledged and responded to alternative views.

12. Ethics in Research: Integrity and Responsibility

Without trustworthy published research, we all would be locked in the opinions of the moment, prisoners of what we alone experience or dupes to whatever we’re told.

Research as a social activity. Research is a social activity with ethical implications. It involves building bonds with readers and sources and making choices that honor or violate ethical principles.

Ethical principles. Ethical researchers do not plagiarize, misreport sources, invent data, conceal objections, distort opposing views, or destroy data.

Creating ethical partnerships. Ethical research involves creating partnerships with readers, acknowledging their views, and striving for greater knowledge and understanding. This requires honesty, transparency, and a commitment to the common good.

Last updated: April 16, 2025