The Discourses

1. Republics Thrive on Internal Discord

That Discord between the Plebs and the Senate of Rome made this Republic both Free and Powerful.

Conflict as a Catalyst. Machiavelli challenges the conventional wisdom that internal conflict weakens a state, arguing instead that the clashes between the populace and the elite in Rome were essential for its liberty and power. This discord forced the creation of laws and institutions that protected the freedom of the people and channeled their ambitions.

Constructive Tumult. Machiavelli acknowledges the "noise and clamor" of Roman tumults but emphasizes their positive outcomes, such as the creation of tribunes. He suggests that republics should provide outlets for the ambitions of the populace, even if it means tolerating some degree of disorder.

Modern Relevance. This concept has relevance in modern political thought, suggesting that managed conflict and dissent can be a source of strength and adaptability in a society. It challenges the notion that social harmony is always the ultimate goal, suggesting that a healthy level of tension can drive progress.

2. Adaptability is a Republic's Greatest Strength

…a republic has a fuller life and enjoys good fortune for a longer time than a principality, since it is better able to adapt itself to diverse circumstances owing to the diversity found among its citizens than a prince can do.

Flexibility over Rigidity. Machiavelli posits that republics, with their diverse citizenry, are inherently more adaptable than principalities, which rely on the singular vision of a prince. This adaptability allows republics to weather changing circumstances and maintain stability over time.

The Mixed Constitution. The ideal republic, according to Machiavelli, blends elements of principality, aristocracy, and democracy, creating a dynamic system where each element checks and balances the others. This mixture allows for different qualities to come to the fore as needed.

The Fabius and Scipio Example. Machiavelli uses the example of Fabius Maximus (the delayer) and Scipio Africanus to illustrate the value of adaptability. Fabius's cautious approach was suited to a time of crisis, while Scipio's boldness was necessary for ultimate victory. A republic, unlike a prince, can accommodate both types of leaders.

3. Virtù: The Cornerstone of Civic Life

The old religion did not beatify men unless they were full of worldly glory: army commanders, for instance, and rulers of republics.

More than Virtue. For Machiavelli, virtù is not simply moral virtue but a combination of skill, courage, audacity, and civic spirit. It is the quality that enables individuals to act decisively for the common good, even when it requires unconventional or morally ambiguous actions.

Pagan vs. Christian Values. Machiavelli contrasts the classical concept of virtù with Christian values like humility and contemplation, arguing that the former is more conducive to the creation and maintenance of a strong republic. He sees Christianity as potentially weakening civic spirit by prioritizing otherworldly concerns.

The Citizen Ideal. Virtù is essential for citizens in a republic, as it motivates them to participate actively in public life, defend their country, and prioritize the common good over their personal interests. Without virtù, a republic is vulnerable to corruption and decline.

4. The Perils of Neglecting the People

The masses are more knowing and more constant than is a prince.

The Power of the People. Machiavelli challenges the traditional view that the populace is inherently fickle and unreliable, arguing that the masses are often more discerning and steadfast than princes. He emphasizes the importance of integrating popular power into political institutions.

Citizen Armies. Machiavelli advocates for citizen militias over mercenary armies, arguing that citizens are more motivated to defend their own interests and are less likely to betray their country. This reflects his belief in the importance of civic engagement and responsibility.

The People's Voice. While acknowledging the potential for the populace to be misled, Machiavelli also recognizes their capacity for sound judgment and their ability to sustain institutions once they have been established. He stresses the need for leaders to understand and respond to the needs and desires of the people.

5. Religion as a Tool for Social Order

If one asks oneself how it comes about that peoples of old were more fond of liberty than they are today, I think the answer is … due … to the difference between our education and that of bygone times, which is based on the difference between our religion and the religion of those days.

Religion's Utility. Machiavelli views religion primarily as a tool for maintaining social order and promoting civic virtue. He admires the Roman use of religion to inspire courage, obedience, and a sense of shared identity among its citizens.

Pagan vs. Christian Religion. Machiavelli expresses a preference for the "old religion" of the Romans, which he believes fostered worldly glory and civic engagement, over Christianity, which he sees as emphasizing humility and contemplation. He criticizes the Church for its corruption and its role in dividing Italy.

The Prince's Duty. Machiavelli argues that a prince should maintain the appearance of religious piety, even if he does not personally believe in it, as it is essential for maintaining the loyalty and obedience of his subjects. This highlights his pragmatic approach to religion as a means to an end.

6. The Double-Edged Sword of Fortune

…all human affairs are ever in a state of flux, and cannot stand still, either there will be improvement or decline, and necessity will lead you to do many things which reason does not recommend.

The Inconstancy of Fortune. Machiavelli emphasizes the ever-changing nature of human affairs, warning against complacency and the illusion of permanent stability. He compares Fortune to a river that can either be channeled and controlled or allowed to flood and destroy.

Virtù vs. Fortuna. While acknowledging the role of fortune in shaping events, Machiavelli insists that virtù – skill, courage, and adaptability – is essential for navigating its unpredictable currents. He argues that those who rely solely on fortune are doomed to be swept away.

Adaptation is Key. Machiavelli stresses the need for rulers and republics to adapt their strategies and institutions to changing circumstances. He criticizes those who are unable to break free from their established patterns of behavior and are thus ill-equipped to deal with new challenges.

7. The Art of War is the Art of Politics

The art of war is an extension of the whole social condition of a society.

Military Strength as Foundation. Machiavelli sees military strength as the bedrock of any successful state, whether a republic or a principality. He emphasizes the importance of a well-trained citizen army and criticizes the reliance on mercenaries or auxiliary troops.

Citizen Soldiers. Machiavelli advocates for a citizen militia, arguing that citizens are more motivated to defend their own interests and are less likely to betray their country. He sees military service as a vital component of civic education and a means of fostering virtù.

War and Society. Machiavelli views military organization as an extension of a society's overall structure and values. He believes that a state's military capabilities are directly linked to its social, political, and economic health.

8. The Pitfalls of Ingratitude and Envy

One is more inclined to repay injuries than benefits; for it is burdensome to grant favours, but revenge is profitable.

The Vice of Ingratitude. Machiavelli explores the dangers of ingratitude in both princes and republics, arguing that it can lead to instability and the loss of power. He identifies avarice and suspicion as the primary causes of ingratitude.

Suspicion Breeds Ingratitude. Machiavelli suggests that suspicion is a more justifiable cause of ingratitude than avarice. A prince or republic may feel compelled to act against a successful general out of fear that he will become too powerful, even if the general has served them loyally.

Avoiding Ingratitude. Machiavelli offers advice to both princes and generals on how to avoid the pitfalls of ingratitude. Princes should lead their armies in person, while generals should either relinquish their command immediately after victory or seize power for themselves.

9. The Necessity of Periodic Renewal

In Order that a Religious Institution or a State should long survive it is essential that it should frequently be Restored to its original principles.

The Cycle of Decay. Machiavelli believes that all human institutions, including republics and religious organizations, are subject to a natural cycle of decay. Over time, they tend to become corrupt, lose their original virtue, and decline.

Returning to First Principles. To counteract this process, Machiavelli argues that it is essential to periodically restore institutions to their original principles. This can be achieved through external shocks, such as military defeats, or through internal reforms led by virtuous individuals.

The Role of Exemplary Leaders. Machiavelli emphasizes the importance of having leaders who embody the original values of the republic or religion. These leaders can inspire others to return to the true path and counteract the forces of corruption.

10. The Corruption of Power: A Constant Threat

Those who set up a Tyranny are no less Blameworthy than are the Founders of a Republic or a Kingdom Praiseworthy.

The Allure of Tyranny. Machiavelli warns against the seductive appeal of tyranny, arguing that it offers a false promise of security and glory. He insists that the founders of republics and kingdoms are far more deserving of praise than those who establish tyrannical regimes.

The Illusion of Control. Machiavelli suggests that those who choose tyranny are often motivated by a desire for absolute control and a belief that they can impose their will on others. However, he argues that this approach is ultimately self-defeating, as it breeds resentment and instability.

The Choice Between Good and Evil. Machiavelli presents a stark choice between two paths: the path of virtue, which leads to lasting fame and the well-being of the community, and the path of tyranny, which leads to infamy and the ruin of both the ruler and the ruled.

11. The Importance of Knowing Your Territory

That a General ought to be acquainted with the Lie of the Land.

Knowledge of the Terrain. Machiavelli emphasizes the importance of a general's familiarity with the terrain in which he is operating. This knowledge allows him to make informed decisions about strategy, tactics, and logistics.

Hunting as Military Training. Machiavelli suggests that hunting is an excellent way for generals to acquire the necessary knowledge of the land. The chase teaches them to read the landscape, anticipate the movements of their prey, and adapt to changing conditions.

Modern Application. While hunting may not be a practical training method for modern generals, the underlying principle remains relevant. Military leaders must have a deep understanding of the physical environment in which they are operating, as well as the cultural and social landscape.

Last updated: April 2, 2025