The German Ideology / Theses on Feuerbach / Introduction to the Critique of Political Economy

1. Material Conditions Shape Consciousness

Consciousness can never be anything else than conscious existence, and the existence of men is their actual life-process.

Primacy of Material Existence. Marx and Engels argue that human consciousness, ideas, and ideologies are not independent entities but rather products of material conditions, specifically the way humans produce their means of subsistence. This contrasts sharply with idealist philosophies that prioritize thought and ideas as the primary drivers of history.

From Production to Thought:

• Humans first engage in material production to meet their basic needs (food, shelter, clothing).
• The mode of production (how they produce) shapes their social relations and interactions.
• These social relations, in turn, influence their consciousness, ideas, and beliefs.

Camera Obscura Analogy. They use the analogy of a camera obscura to illustrate how ideology inverts reality. Just as a camera obscura projects an upside-down image, ideology presents a distorted view of the world, reflecting the material conditions but in an inverted form. For example, a society based on exploitation might develop ideologies that justify inequality as natural or divinely ordained.

2. Division of Labor Creates Class and Alienation

Division of labour and private property are, moreover, identical expressions: in the one the same thing is affirmed with reference to activity as is affirmed in the other with reference to the product of the activity.

Origin of Social Stratification. The division of labor, initially arising from natural differences (e.g., sex, physical strength), leads to the separation of material and mental labor, creating distinct social classes with conflicting interests. This division is intrinsically linked to the emergence of private property, as it determines the unequal distribution of labor and its products.

Alienation Defined:

• Alienation from the product: Workers do not own or control what they produce.
• Alienation from the process: Labor becomes a means to an end, not a fulfilling activity.
• Alienation from species-being: Humans are estranged from their potential as creative, social beings.
• Alienation from others: Competition and class conflict undermine social solidarity.

Communist Solution. Marx and Engels propose communism as a solution to overcome alienation. In a communist society, individuals would not be confined to a single, exclusive sphere of activity but could engage in various pursuits according to their desires and abilities, thereby reclaiming control over their lives and labor.

3. Ruling Ideas Reflect Ruling Class Interests

The ideas of the ruling class are in every epoch the ruling ideas, i.e. the class which is the ruling material force of society, is at the same time its ruling intellectual force.

Dominance of Material Relations. The class that controls the means of material production also controls the means of mental production, shaping the dominant ideas and values of society. These ruling ideas serve to legitimize and maintain the existing social order, often masking the underlying relations of exploitation and power.

Mechanisms of Ideological Control:

• The ruling class produces and distributes ideas through its control over education, media, and cultural institutions.
• Intellectuals and ideologists within the ruling class articulate and refine these ideas, presenting them as universal truths.
• Those who lack access to the means of mental production are often subject to the ruling ideas, internalizing them as their own.

Example: Bourgeois Ideology. In a capitalist society, ideas such as individual freedom, equality of opportunity, and the sanctity of private property are promoted as universal values, even though they primarily serve the interests of the bourgeoisie. These ideas obscure the inherent inequalities and exploitative nature of the capitalist system.

4. Civil Society as the Theater of History

Civil society embraces the whole material intercourse of individuals within a definite stage of the development of productive forces.

Material Basis of History. Civil society, encompassing the totality of material relations and interactions within a given stage of productive forces, is the true foundation and arena of history. This perspective challenges traditional historical narratives that focus on political events, great leaders, or abstract ideas, neglecting the underlying economic and social structures.

Evolution of Civil Society:

• Civil society evolves alongside the development of productive forces, from simple family structures to complex commercial and industrial systems.
• It transcends the state and the nation, encompassing the entire commercial and industrial life of a given stage.
• However, it must also assert itself in foreign relations as nationality and organize itself internally as the state.

World History Emerges. As separate spheres of interaction expand and the division of labor between nations increases, history becomes world history. Events in one part of the world can have profound consequences elsewhere, as illustrated by the example of a machine invented in England causing widespread unemployment in India and China.

5. Feuerbach's Limited Materialism

Feuerbach, therefore, never speaks of the world of man in such cases, but always takes refuge in external nature, and moreover in nature which has not yet been subdued by men.

Contemplative vs. Practical Materialism. While acknowledging Feuerbach's contribution to materialism, Marx and Engels criticize his contemplative approach, which focuses on the sensuous world as a given object of perception rather than as a product of human activity. Feuerbach's materialism remains abstract and ahistorical, failing to grasp the transformative role of human labor in shaping both nature and society.

Feuerbach's Shortcomings:

• He fails to recognize that the sensuous world is not a fixed entity but a product of industry and social relations.
• He focuses on "Man" in the abstract rather than real, historical individuals in their concrete social contexts.
• He retreats to external nature rather than examining the human-made environment and its impact on consciousness.

Example: Cherry Tree. Marx and Engels point out that even the simplest objects of "sensuous certainty," such as a cherry tree, are products of social development, industry, and commercial intercourse. The cherry tree was transplanted by commerce into our zone, becoming "sensuous certainty" only through the action of a definite society in a definite age.

6. Communism as the Abolition of Alienation

We call communism the real movement which abolishes the present state of things.

Overcoming Estrangement. Communism is presented not as a utopian ideal but as a real movement aimed at abolishing the existing state of things, particularly the alienation inherent in capitalist society. This involves the abolition of private property, the division of labor, and the class structure that perpetuates alienation.

Conditions for Communism:

• A high level of productive forces, enabling the satisfaction of everyone's needs.
• A propertyless mass of workers, driven by necessity to overthrow the existing order.
• Universal intercourse between men, fostering a sense of global solidarity and interdependence.

Liberation of the Individual. Communism aims to liberate individuals from the constraints of class, nationality, and local barriers, enabling them to develop their full potential and enjoy the all-sided production of the whole earth. This involves transforming the world-historical cooperation of individuals into conscious control and mastery of their own powers.

7. The State as an Instrument of Class Rule

Since the State is the form in which the individuals of a ruling class assert their common interests, and in which the whole civil society of an epoch is epitomised, it follows that the State mediates in the formation of all common institutions and that the institutions receive a political form.

State's Role in Maintaining Order. The state is not a neutral arbiter but an instrument of class rule, serving to protect and promote the interests of the dominant class. It arises from the need to manage the contradictions and conflicts inherent in class-based societies, particularly the antagonism between the ruling class and the exploited classes.

Evolution of the State:

• In ancient societies, the state was closely tied to tribal property and communal ownership.
• In feudal societies, the state reflected the hierarchical structure of land ownership and the power of the nobility.
• In modern capitalist societies, the state is purchased by the owners of property through taxation and becomes dependent on their commercial credit.

Law as Expression of Class Will. Law is presented as the expression of the ruling class's will, reflecting their common interests and serving to maintain their dominance. The illusion that law is based on free will obscures its material basis in the existing property relationships.

8. Individuals Defined by Social Relations

The separate individuals form a class only insofar as they have to carry on a common battle against another class; otherwise they are on hostile terms with each other as competitors.

Social Context Matters. Individuals are not isolated atoms but are shaped by their social relations and class positions. Their identities, interests, and opportunities are largely determined by the social structures in which they are embedded.

Class Consciousness:

• Individuals form a class only when they recognize their common interests and engage in collective action against another class.
• Otherwise, they remain isolated competitors, driven by individual self-interest.
• Class consciousness arises from the shared conditions of life and the common struggle against exploitation.

Community and Freedom. True personal freedom is only possible in community, where individuals have the means to cultivate their gifts in all directions. In previous substitutes for the community, such as the state, personal freedom has existed only for the individuals who developed within the relationships of the ruling class.

9. Language as the Actuality of Thought

Language is the immediate actuality of thought.

Bridging Thought and Reality. Language is not merely a tool for expressing pre-existing thoughts but is the very medium in which thought takes place. It is the immediate actuality of thought, the means by which ideas are given concrete form and communicated to others.

Philosophical Illusion. The problem of transitioning from thought to reality, from language to life, exists only in philosophical illusion. Philosophers, by giving thought an independent existence, create a false separation between the world of ideas and the material world.

Dissolving the Illusion. To overcome this illusion, philosophers must dissolve their language into ordinary language, recognizing it as the distorted language of the actual world. Neither thoughts nor language in themselves form a realm of their own; they are only manifestations of actual life.

10. Revolution Arises from Contradictions

In the development of productive forces there comes a stage when productive forces and means of intercourse are brought into being, which, under the existing relationships, only cause mischief, and are no longer productive but destructive forces (machinery and money).

Inevitable Conflict. Revolution is not a matter of chance or individual will but arises from the inherent contradictions between the productive forces and the existing relations of production. When the productive forces develop to a point where they can no longer be contained within the existing social order, a revolutionary struggle becomes inevitable.

Conditions for Revolution:

• The development of destructive productive forces (e.g., machinery, money) that cause widespread social disruption.
• The emergence of a class (the proletariat) that bears all the burdens of society without enjoying its advantages.
• The development of communist consciousness, recognizing the necessity of a fundamental revolution.

Transformation of Humanity. Revolution is necessary not only to overthrow the ruling class but also to transform the class overthrowing it, ridding it of all the muck of ages and fitting it to found society anew. This involves the alteration of men on a mass scale, which can only take place in a practical movement, a revolution.

Last updated: May 4, 2025