The Evolution of Useful Things

1. Form follows failure, not function

The form of made things is always subject to change in response to their real or perceived shortcomings, their failures to function properly.

Challenging conventional wisdom. The widely accepted notion that "form follows function" is incomplete and often misleading. Instead, the evolution of artifacts is primarily driven by the recognition and correction of failures in existing designs. This principle applies to all inventions, from the simplest paper clip to the most complex technological systems.

Examples of failure-driven evolution:

• Forks evolved from knives when the latter failed to efficiently convey food to the mouth
• Zippers developed as a response to the shortcomings of buttons and hooks
• Automobile designs changed to address safety concerns and fuel efficiency

Implications for design: Designers and engineers should focus on identifying and addressing the failures of existing products rather than solely on their intended functions. This approach leads to more innovative and effective solutions.

2. The evolution of everyday objects is driven by perceived shortcomings

Every artifact is somewhat wanting in its function, and this is what drives its evolution.

Continuous improvement cycle. Even seemingly perfected objects like knives, forks, and spoons have undergone significant changes throughout history. These changes were driven by users' and designers' perceptions of how existing tools could be improved.

Case studies of everyday object evolution:

• Paper clips: From straight pins to various bent-wire designs
• Beverage containers: From glass bottles to aluminum cans to plastic bottles
• Windshield wipers: From manual to intermittent to rain-sensing systems

Cultural influence: The perception of an object's shortcomings can vary across cultures and time periods, leading to divergent evolutionary paths for similar tools. For example, the development of chopsticks in East Asia versus the fork-knife-spoon combination in Western cultures.

3. Invention is a response to criticism of existing designs

Inventors are people who not only curse, but who also start to think of what can be done to eliminate the bother.

Inventors as critics. Successful inventors are often those who are most attuned to the limitations and annoyances of existing products. They combine this critical perspective with the creativity and technical skill to devise solutions.

Key traits of successful inventors:

• Keen observation of everyday problems
• Ability to envision alternative solutions
• Persistence in refining ideas and overcoming obstacles

Historical examples:

• Thomas Edison's light bulb as a response to the shortcomings of gas lighting
• The Wright brothers' airplane as a solution to the limitations of ground transportation
• Steve Jobs' iPhone as an answer to the complexities of early smartphones

4. Specialized tools evolve to address specific failures

Different innovators in different places, starting with rudimentary solutions to the same basic problem, focused on different faults at different times, and so we have inherited culture-specific artifacts that are daily reminders that even so primitive a function as eating imposes no single form on the implements used to effect it.

Divergent evolution of tools. As users encounter specific problems or inefficiencies with general-purpose tools, more specialized implements are developed to address these issues. This process leads to a proliferation of highly specific tools across various trades and industries.

Examples of specialized tool evolution:

• Hammers: From general-purpose to specialized types for different trades
• Screwdrivers: Various head designs for different screw types and applications
• Eating utensils: From basic knife-fork-spoon to specialized forks for seafood, salad, etc.

Implications: The existence of highly specialized tools reflects the complex and varied nature of human activities and the ongoing process of identifying and addressing specific failures in existing designs.

5. Industrial design balances innovation with familiarity

Industrial designers thus seem to know not to go too far too soon in making changes, no matter how rational these might be.

The MAYA principle. Successful industrial designers often adhere to the concept of "Most Advanced Yet Acceptable" (MAYA), introduced by Raymond Loewy. This approach balances innovative features with familiar elements to ensure user acceptance.

Key aspects of effective industrial design:

• Gradual introduction of new features
• Retention of familiar elements or "survival forms"
• Consideration of user expectations and habits

Case studies:

• Automobile design: Gradual evolution from horse-drawn carriages to modern cars
• Smartphone interfaces: Skeuomorphic design transitioning to flat design
• Kitchen appliances: Integration of digital controls while maintaining familiar forms

6. Economic factors significantly influence artifact evolution

Economic factors can account for the competitive dominance of one particular form over functionally superior forms.

The role of economics in design. While functional improvements drive much of artifact evolution, economic considerations often play a crucial role in determining which designs succeed in the marketplace. Manufacturing costs, material availability, and market demand all influence the forms that artifacts take.

Economic influences on design:

• Material choices: e.g., aluminum vs. steel in beverage cans
• Manufacturing processes: e.g., injection molding vs. machining
• Market segmentation: e.g., luxury vs. budget product lines

Balancing act: Designers must weigh functional improvements against economic constraints, often leading to compromises that may not represent the theoretically optimal solution but are more viable in the real world.

7. User adaptation and expectations shape technological progress

We tend to adapt to available technology, however, and we seem to have come to tip our cans in the same way we came to tip our bottles, at just the right angle for the level of the contents.

Co-evolution of users and technology. As new technologies and designs are introduced, users adapt their behaviors and expectations. This adaptation process, in turn, influences future design iterations, creating a feedback loop between users and artifacts.

Examples of user adaptation:

• Touchscreen interfaces: Users learning gesture-based controls
• Social media: Evolving norms of online communication
• Automotive technologies: Drivers adapting to new safety features and controls

Implications for design: Designers must consider not only how users will initially interact with a new product but also how user behaviors and expectations may evolve over time. This foresight can lead to more successful and enduring designs.

8. The pursuit of perfection drives continuous improvement

There can be no such thing as a "perfected" artifact; the future perfect can only be a tense, not a thing.

Perfection as a moving target. The concept of a "perfect" design is inherently flawed, as changing contexts, technologies, and user expectations continuously redefine what constitutes an ideal solution. This reality drives ongoing innovation and improvement in all fields of design and engineering.

Implications of the perfection paradox:

• Continuous innovation: No design is ever truly "finished"
• Diverse solutions: Multiple valid approaches to solving the same problem
• Adaptive design processes: Flexibility to respond to changing requirements

Examples of ongoing improvement:

• Smartphone evolution: From basic mobile phones to powerful pocket computers
• Automotive safety: Continuous advancements in crash protection and accident avoidance
• Energy efficiency: Ongoing efforts to improve the efficiency of appliances and vehicles

Last updated: December 9, 2024