The Final Pagan Generation

1. The Ubiquitous Gods Shaped Roman Life

The gods belonged to the empire’s natural environment, and Romans had spent centuries learning how to make use of this vital resource.

Everywhere, all the time. Temples, statues, and images of gods were not just in designated religious spaces but permeated every aspect of Roman life, from grand urban temples to small household shrines. This omnipresence created a sensory environment where the divine was an ever-present, if often unacknowledged, part of daily existence.

Sensory overload. The experience of the divine was not just visual but also auditory, olfactory, and even gustatory. Festivals filled the calendar, with processions, music, incense, and special foods creating a multi-sensory experience that was hard to ignore, even for those who did not actively participate.

• Temples ranged from massive structures like the Serapeum to small neighborhood shrines.
• Statues of gods were found in temples, homes, and even on street corners.
• Festivals were frequent, with some lasting multiple days and involving public spectacles.
• Fragrant offerings and incense were used in both religious and domestic settings.

Unconscious acceptance. The sheer ubiquity of the gods and their associated rituals created a sense of passive acceptance, making it difficult for Romans to imagine a world where traditional religious practices did not play a central role. This was a world where the divine was not just a belief but a tangible, ever-present reality.

2. Education Socialized Elites, Not Just Scholars

Though fundamentally literary in character, later Roman education did as much to socialize students as it did to familiarize them with the works of a classical canon.

More than just books. Roman education, particularly in grammar and rhetoric, was not just about acquiring knowledge but also about learning how to behave as a member of the elite. Students were trained in the art of eloquent composition, but also in the social graces and codes of conduct that defined their class.

A world apart. Schools created a unique social environment, often described as a second family, where students developed strong bonds with their teachers and peers. This intense social experience, while valuable, also insulated them from the larger changes happening in the empire.

• Teachers were often called "father" or "mother," and peers were called "brothers."
• Students were expected to defend their teachers and their schools.
• Initiation rituals marked the transition into the scholastic community.
• Friendships formed in school often lasted a lifetime.

Timeless ideals. The curriculum focused on classical mythology and pagan theology, reinforcing a sense of continuity with the past. This emphasis on tradition, combined with the insular nature of student life, made it difficult for young elites to fully appreciate the significance of the religious and political changes occurring around them.

3. The Lure and Limits of the Imperial System

The great wealth and opportunities that the Roman system provided to those who were willing to play by its rules steadily shaped these men into loyal and cooperative superintendents of imperial stability.

A new age of gold. The reforms of Diocletian and Constantine created a more stable and prosperous empire, with an expanded bureaucracy that offered unprecedented opportunities for wealth and power. This new system, however, also created a stark divide between those who had access to the stable gold coinage and those who did not.

Opportunities and obligations. The expanded bureaucracy created a vast number of new positions, from entry-level clerks to high-ranking officials. These positions offered not only generous salaries but also exemptions from civic duties, making them highly desirable.

• The system rewarded loyalty and competence, but also created a culture of patronage.
• Social networks were crucial for securing positions and advancing careers.
• Those who benefited from the system were expected to repay their debts through favors and support.

A system of control. The system, while offering opportunities, also created a powerful incentive for elites to remain loyal and cooperative. The fear of losing their positions and the social capital they had accumulated kept them from challenging the imperial order, even when they disagreed with its policies.

4. Navigating Uncertainty: Personal and Political

These changes were certainly noticed by members of this generation, but their personal concerns and those of their family again took precedence.

Shifting sands. The period between 350 and 361 was marked by political instability, with the usurpation of Magnentius, the difficult tenure of Gallus, and the rise of Julian. These events forced elites to make difficult choices, balancing their personal ambitions with the need to remain on the right side of the shifting political landscape.

Personal challenges. At the same time, demographic realities brought personal challenges, with many members of the final pagan generation experiencing the loss of spouses, children, and parents. These personal losses often coincided with new responsibilities, such as managing family estates and caring for younger relatives.

• Ausonius lost his wife and some of his children.
• Themistius lost his wife, son, and father.
• Libanius lost his uncle, mother, and dearest friend.

Prioritizing the personal. While these men were aware of the political and religious changes occurring around them, their personal concerns and those of their families often took precedence. They sought to navigate the shifting political landscape in ways that would protect their families and their careers, often prioritizing personal stability over ideological purity.

5. Julian's Challenge and the Limits of Power

The first children of the Christian Roman Empire drove the events with which this study concludes, but this book focuses on their parents, the “final pagan generation.”

A pagan interlude. The reign of Julian, though brief, represented a significant challenge to the established order. Julian attempted to revitalize traditional religion, but his efforts were often disruptive and ultimately failed to reverse the growing influence of Christianity.

A complex figure. Julian was a complex figure who was both a product of the Roman system and a critic of it. He was a philosopher-emperor who sought to restore the old gods, but his policies were often inconsistent and ultimately ineffective.

• He removed some of Constantius’s officials and replaced them with his own.
• He ordered the reopening of temples and the restoration of sacrifices.
• He attempted to use education as a tool to promote traditional religious identity.

The limits of power. Julian’s reign revealed the limits of imperial power. Despite his best efforts, he could not fully reverse the social and religious trends that had been set in motion by Constantine. His policies, while disruptive, ultimately failed to achieve their intended goals.

6. A New Order: Pannonians, Power, and Pragmatism

They shared an interest in administrative stability and a general faith in the imperial system’s ability to maintain the prosperity and the tranquility of the empire.

A new dynasty. The joint reign of Valentinian and Valens marked a shift in imperial leadership, with the rise of two Pannonian brothers who shared a commitment to administrative stability and a pragmatic approach to governance. They were not ideologues but rather practical men who sought to make the imperial system work more efficiently.

New faces, old system. Valentinian and Valens replaced many of the officials who had served under Julian and Jovian with new men, often from their home region of Pannonia. This shift in personnel, however, did not fundamentally alter the structure of the imperial system.

• They focused on administrative efficiency and fiscal stability.
• They promoted men who were loyal and capable, regardless of their religious beliefs.
• They sought to maintain the prosperity and tranquility of the empire.

A pragmatic approach. Unlike Julian, Valentinian and Valens were not particularly interested in religious matters. They were more concerned with maintaining order and stability than with promoting any particular religious agenda. This pragmatic approach allowed them to govern effectively, but it also meant that they did little to address the underlying tensions between pagans and Christians.

7. Christian Youth Culture: A New Path to Elite Status

The rise of this Christian youth culture gave large numbers of young elites an alternative model of aristocratic success that existed outside of the mainstream imperial system.

A different path. While many young elites continued to pursue careers in the imperial administration, a growing number began to seek alternative paths to success in the church or in ascetic communities. This new Christian youth culture offered a different model of aristocratic achievement, one that was not tied to wealth, power, or social status.

The allure of asceticism. The Life of Antony, written by Athanasius, played a key role in popularizing the ascetic life among elites. It presented asceticism as a form of practical philosophy that offered a path to spiritual fulfillment and a way to escape the corruption of the world.

• Some young elites became bishops, using their social connections and administrative skills to build powerful ecclesiastical networks.
• Others embraced asceticism, seeking a life of solitude and spiritual discipline.
• These choices often led to conflict with parents and other family members.

A new kind of power. These young men were not simply dropping out of the system; they were creating a new system of power and influence that existed outside of the traditional imperial structures. They were building new networks of friends and associates, and they were developing new forms of authority that were based on spiritual rather than secular achievements.

8. The Shifting Sands of Power: Bishops, Bureaucrats, and Aristocrats

By 384, however, a controversy over the Altar of Victory once housed in the senate house in Rome brought Ambrose and the traditional Roman senatorial order in direct conflict.

A changing landscape. The late 370s and early 380s saw a growing tension between the traditional Roman elite and the rising power of the Christian church. This tension was particularly evident in the conflict over the Altar of Victory, a symbol of traditional Roman religion that had been removed from the senate house by Gratian.

Competing claims to authority. The conflict over the Altar of Victory highlighted the competing claims to authority that were emerging in the late fourth century. On one side were the traditional Roman senators, who saw themselves as the guardians of the empire’s cultural and religious heritage. On the other side were the Christian bishops, who were increasingly asserting their authority over both religious and secular matters.

• The Altar of Victory controversy pitted Ambrose against the traditional Roman senatorial order.
• The issue was resolved in Ambrose’s favor, showing the potency of nontraditional models of authority.
• The conflict revealed the growing power of the church and the declining influence of the traditional Roman elite.

A new balance of power. The events of the early 380s marked a significant shift in the balance of power in the Roman world. The traditional elite, who had long dominated the political and social landscape, were now forced to contend with a new force: the Christian church.

9. Old Age in a Changing World: The Final Act

At times, Libanius worked to advance the same goals as Christian dropouts like John Chrysostom, but by the late 380s, Libanius often felt compelled to speak out against the anti-pagan attacks that Christian bishops and ascetics encouraged.

A time of transition. As members of the final pagan generation entered their later years, they faced a world that was rapidly changing. Their health began to fail, their friends passed away, and their careers reached their final stages.

A mix of activity and reflection. While some, like Ausonius, retreated from public life, others, like Libanius, remained active until the very end. They continued to pursue their personal and professional interests, but they also began to grapple with the changing religious landscape of the empire.

• Libanius remained active in public life, writing orations and corresponding with influential figures.
• He expressed concern about the anti-pagan attacks that Christian bishops and ascetics encouraged.
• He reacted to these attacks in the way that men of his generation had been taught, by appealing to friendly officials and writing orations.

A changing world. The final pagan generation lived through a time of dramatic change that they could neither anticipate nor fully understand. They were the last Romans to grow up in a world where traditional religious practices were the norm, and they were forced to adapt to a new world in which Christianity was increasingly dominant.

10. A Legacy of Culture, Not Confession

This generation represents the last cohort of Roman children to grow up believing that religious practice would continue in the way that it always had.

Beyond religious labels. The final pagan generation is not remembered for their religious beliefs but for their cultural achievements. They were the last Romans to grow up in a world where traditional religious practices were the norm, and they were forced to adapt to a new world in which Christianity was increasingly dominant.

Cultural connoisseurs. Figures like Libanius, Ausonius, Themistius, and Praetextatus are remembered not as confessional warriors but as cultural connoisseurs whose eloquence and good taste represented the elite experience of the fourth-century age of gold.

• They were masters of rhetoric, literature, and philosophy.
• They were patrons of the arts and sciences.
• They were deeply invested in the preservation of classical culture.

A lasting legacy. The final pagan generation left behind a legacy of culture and learning that transcended the religious conflicts of their time. They represent a generation of Romans who, despite living through a period of dramatic change, remained committed to the values and traditions that had shaped their lives.

Last updated: January 19, 2025