The Myth of Race

1. Early Racism Rooted in Power and Justified by Unscientific Theories

For the past 500 years people have been taught how to interpret and understand racism.

Spanish Inquisition. The Spanish Inquisition marked a shift from religious persecution to racial discrimination, introducing the concept of limpieza de sangre ("purity of blood") to exclude converted Jews and Muslims from society. This was a new form of racism, where ethnicity or race, rather than just belief, became a basis for discrimination.

Colonial Justifications. As Europeans colonized the Americas, they needed new rationalizations for mistreating indigenous populations. Two major theories emerged: the pre-Adamite theory, which posited that Native Americans were not descendants of Adam and Eve, and the degeneration theory, which claimed that non-whites were degenerate descendants of Adam and Eve.

Power and Control. These theories served to justify the conquistadores' actions, portraying Native Americans as subhuman and incapable of self-governance. This early form of racism was thus deeply intertwined with economic and political power, setting a precedent for future discriminatory practices.

2. Degeneration Theory: Climate and Lifestyle as Determinants of Racial Hierarchy

It seems that the belief in human races, carry ing along with it the prejudice and hatred of “racism,” is so embedded in our culture and has been an integral part of our worldview for so long that many of us assume that it just must be true.

Biblical Origins. The degeneration theory, unlike the pre-Adamite theory, accepted the biblical account of human origins, positing that all humans descended from Adam and Eve. However, it claimed that non-whites had degenerated from this original state due to factors like climate, lifestyle, or divine action.

Enlightenment Thinkers. Enlightenment figures like Montesquieu, Linnaeus, and Buffon attempted to explain human variation through climate theory, suggesting that environmental factors influenced temperament and customs. However, these differences were not considered hereditary, and proponents of this theory believed that "degenerates" could be remediated through education and Christianization.

Blumenbach's Contribution. Johann Friedrich Blumenbach, considered the father of physical anthropology, classified humans into five varieties, with Caucasians as the ideal and other races as degenerations from this original form. This hierarchical model, though Blumenbach himself was egalitarian, contributed to the development of modern racist paradigms.

3. Pre-Adamite Theory: Separate Creation and Innate Racial Inferiority

Over the past 500 or so years, many intellectuals and their books have created our story of racism.

Challenging Biblical Origins. The pre-Adamite theory, in contrast to the degeneration theory, challenged the biblical account of human origins, suggesting that non-white peoples had a separate, earlier origin and were not descendants of Adam and Eve. This theory implied that non-whites were inherently different and inferior.

La Peyrère's Influence. Isaac La Peyrère's pre-Adamite theory, proposed in the 17th century, argued that millions of people existed before Adam, but that God created Adam and began Jewish history to save mankind. This theory, though controversial, gained traction as scientific findings conflicted with the Bible.

Hume and Kant's Contributions. In the 18th century, David Hume and Immanuel Kant further developed the pre-Adamite theory, arguing for the separate creation and innate inferiority of non-white peoples. Kant, in particular, created a racist anthropology based on skin color, linking intellectual ability and moral capacity to race.

4. Eugenics Emerges: Debunking Lamarck and Embracing Biological Determinism

The abandonment of the belief in acquired characters was the stimulus for the eugenics movement.

Lamarck's Fall. The debunking of Lamarck's theory of acquired characteristics, which posited that organisms could pass on traits acquired during their lifetime, was a crucial turning point. August Weismann's experiments showed that only germ cells, not somatic cells, could transmit traits, discrediting the idea that environment could influence heredity.

Mendelian Genetics. The rediscovery of Mendelian genetics further solidified the belief in biological determinism, suggesting that traits were inherited through discrete units (genes) rather than being shaped by the environment. This led to the rise of eugenics, the belief that human traits could be improved through selective breeding.

Social Darwinism. The combination of Mendelian genetics and Darwin's theory of natural selection gave scientific credence to strict biological determinists. This created a perfect environment for the eugenics movement, which sought to improve the human race by controlling reproduction.

5. American Eugenics: From Shaler's Influence to Davenport's Record Office

The eugenics movement was a direct extension of Social Darwinism.

Shaler's Legacy. Nathaniel Southgate Shaler, a Harvard professor, played a key role in bringing racist theories into the 20th century. Influenced by Gobineau and Nott, Shaler believed in Aryan superiority and the inferiority of African Americans, shaping the views of many influential Harvard graduates.

Davenport's Vision. Charles Davenport, a prominent biologist, established the Eugenics Record Office (ERO) at Cold Spring Harbor in 1910. The ERO, funded by wealthy donors, became the nerve center of the eugenics movement, conducting research, popularizing eugenic ideas, and lobbying for eugenics-related legislation.

Laughlin's Role. Harry Laughlin, superintendent of the ERO, was a relentless worker who pursued Davenport's agenda. The ERO collected vast amounts of data on families, aiming to identify and eliminate "unfit" individuals and promote the breeding of "superior" individuals.

6. The First International Eugenics Congress: A Turning Point

The connections between old theories of polygenism and the eugenics movement, as one might expect, were very strong.

International Gathering. The First International Eugenics Congress, held in London in 1912, brought together leading eugenicists from around the world, including prominent scientists, politicians, and intellectuals. This event marked a turning point, solidifying the legitimacy and widespread acceptance of the eugenics movement.

State Department Support. The U.S. State Department, defying legal restrictions, sent invitations to the congress on official letterhead, signaling the government's approval of the event. This further enhanced the prestige and influence of the eugenics movement.

Media Coverage. The congress received glowing media coverage, with publications like the Journal of the American Medical Association and the New York Times highlighting its importance. This positive publicity helped to normalize eugenic ideas and promote their adoption in public policy.

7. Polygenics and Eugenics Merge: The American School and Gobineau's Influence

By the end of the nineteenth century, the views of Gobineau, as echoed by Shaler, had been “picked up with enthusiasm by William Z. Ripley, and others picked it up from him” (Brace 2005, 161).

American School of Anthropology. The American School, led by Samuel Morton, Josiah Nott, and Louis Agassiz, championed polygenism, arguing for the separate creation and innate inferiority of non-white races. Their views, disseminated through texts like "Types of Mankind," justified slavery and racial discrimination.

Gobineau's Aryan Supremacy. Joseph-Arthur de Gobineau, a French aristocrat, popularized the idea of Aryan supremacy, claiming that the success of civilization depended on the purity of Aryan blood. His "Essay on the Inequality of Human Races" influenced later racist thinkers and contributed to the rise of Nazism.

Chamberlain and Ripley's Influence. Houston Stewart Chamberlain and William Z. Ripley further disseminated Gobineau's ideas, with Chamberlain's "Foundations of the Nineteenth Century" extolling Germanic superiority and Ripley's "The Races of Europe" dividing Europeans into distinct racial groups with varying capabilities. These works shaped racist thought in both Europe and America.

8. The Pioneer Fund: A Bastion of Scientific Racism

In fact, these men were the core of the eugenics movement in Eu ro-pe an and American science.

Draper's Vision. Wickliffe Draper, a wealthy heir, established the Pioneer Fund in 1937 to promote eugenics and racial purity. Draper, influenced by Nazi ideology, sought to use science to justify racial discrimination and limit immigration.

Laughlin and Weyher's Roles. Harry Laughlin, superintendent of the ERO, served as the Pioneer Fund's first president, while Harry Frederick Weyher Jr., a tax attorney, became a key figure in managing the fund and directing its resources towards racist causes.

Funding Racist Research. The Pioneer Fund provided financial support to researchers who promoted racist theories, including Arthur Jensen, William Shockley, and Roger Pearson. These figures used their positions to disseminate racist propaganda and influence public policy.

9. Boas's Antidote: Culture as an Alternative to Biological Determinism

Unfortunately, one’s cultural background often trumps logic, empirical data, and modern science.

Challenging Biological Determinism. Franz Boas, a German-Jewish immigrant and anthropologist, challenged the prevailing belief in biological determinism, arguing that culture, not race, was the primary determinant of human behavior and societal differences.

The Concept of Culture. Boas developed the anthropological concept of culture, emphasizing the importance of shared traditions, beliefs, and practices in shaping human behavior. This concept provided an alternative framework for understanding human variation, undermining the racist assumptions of eugenics.

Empirical Evidence. Boas supported his theories with empirical research, demonstrating the plasticity of human traits and the lack of correlation between race and intelligence. His work laid the foundation for a more egalitarian and culturally sensitive approach to anthropology.

10. The Downfall of Eugenics: A Shift in Paradigms

For others, I hope that this book will further their understanding of why racism is still so prevalent in our society; why the anthropological concept of culture is so important and the infl uence of culture on our lives is so profound.

The Rise and Fall of Eugenics. The eugenics movement, fueled by biological determinism and racist ideology, gained widespread acceptance in the early 20th century. However, the horrors of Nazism and the rise of the anthropological concept of culture led to its decline.

Boas's Influence. Franz Boas's work, along with that of his students, challenged the scientific basis of eugenics and promoted a more nuanced understanding of human variation. The concept of culture provided a powerful alternative to biological determinism, undermining the racist assumptions of the eugenics movement.

The Modern Synthesis. The modern synthesis of evolutionary theory, which combined Darwinism with genetics, further undermined eugenic arguments. This new framework emphasized the importance of population variation and the role of environmental factors in shaping human traits.

11. Modern Racism: Anti-Immigration Policies and the New Bigot Brigade

Racism is still a part of our everyday lives.

The Pioneer Fund's Legacy. Despite the discrediting of eugenics, the Pioneer Fund has continued to support racist research and anti-immigration policies. The fund has provided financial support to organizations and individuals who promote white supremacy and seek to restrict immigration based on race.

Anti-Immigration Organizations. The Pioneer Fund has funded organizations like FAIR and AICF, which promote anti-immigrant sentiment and advocate for restrictive immigration policies. These groups often rely on pseudoscientific arguments and racist rhetoric to justify their positions.

The New Bigot Brigade. The Pioneer Fund has supported a new generation of scientific racists, including Arthur Jensen, J. Philippe Rushton, and Richard Lynn, who continue to promote discredited theories about racial differences in intelligence and behavior. These figures provide intellectual cover for racist ideologies and contribute to the perpetuation of discrimination.

Last updated: March 12, 2025