The Secret Life of Words

1. English boasts a vast, "omnivorous" vocabulary built on centuries of borrowing.

The word omnivorous is a Latin borrowing whose parts mean ‘all devouring,’ and it is a word often used to describe the capacious English vocabulary.

A mixed bag. English vocabulary is not "pure" but a rich blend of words from numerous languages. This extensive borrowing is a defining characteristic, reflecting a history of contact through trade, invasion, colonization, and globalization. Looking at these borrowed words reveals stories about the people who spoke them and the cultures they encountered.

Capacious lexicon. The sheer size of the English vocabulary is remarkable, estimated to be over a million words and constantly growing. This vastness is largely due to its willingness to absorb words from other languages, alongside creating new ones internally. While core, everyday words are often native Germanic, a significant portion of less common words are borrowed.

Global reach. As English spreads globally, it continues to acquire words from new languages, adapting them to its own system. This ongoing process means English remains a dynamic, "all-devouring" language, reflecting its status as a major world language influenced by diverse linguistic communities.

2. Words are dynamic entities with life cycles, constantly being born and dying.

It is a natural part of a living lexicon that words are born and die on a regular basis.

From birth to death. Words enter the language through various means, including borrowing from other languages or being created by speakers using existing English parts. While some words have ancient origins, others are relatively new coinages. Conversely, words die when they fall out of use, though written records can preserve them in an "archaic" state for some readers.

Ephemeral vs. enduring. Some new words, called nonce words, are created for a single occasion and quickly disappear. Others are picked up by the speech community and become established parts of the lexicon, sometimes enduring for centuries. The success of a new word depends on its adoption and continued use by speakers.

Lexical turnover. The constant birth and death of words mean the English lexicon is always in flux. While some core vocabulary remains stable, the edges of the language are constantly shifting. This natural process of change is a sign of a vibrant, living language, not a sign of decay.

3. Dictionaries are human creations, attempting to capture the ever-changing language.

Dictionaries seem to hold a revered place in our culture.

Descriptive vs. prescriptive. Lexicographers primarily see their role as descriptive – observing and recording how language is actually used. However, users often turn to dictionaries prescriptively, seeking guidance on how language should be used or what words "really" mean based on tradition. This creates a tension for dictionary makers navigating language change.

Tracking usage. Dictionary editors track language by reading vast amounts of text and using large databases (corpora) to see how words are used in context. They look for evidence of new words emerging, existing words changing meaning, and older words falling out of use. Decisions about inclusion, definition, and usage labels are based on this observed evidence.

Human decisions. Despite their perceived authority, dictionaries are the product of human effort and decision-making. Editors make choices about which words to include, how to define them based on usage, and whether to add usage notes or labels. This reminds us that dictionaries are valuable resources but not infallible or static authorities.

4. Borrowing from other languages is a fundamental, ongoing process in English history.

As long as there has been English, there have been borrowed words in English, and by looking at these words, we can learn about encounters with speakers of other languages.

Layers of influence. English has been shaped by waves of borrowing throughout its history. Early contact brought words from Latin and Celtic. The Viking invasions introduced Old Norse words, some even entering the core vocabulary (like they, them, their). The Norman Conquest led to a massive influx of French words, particularly in areas of government, law, and high culture.

Classical revival. The Renaissance saw a renewed interest in Latin and Greek, leading to extensive borrowing of learned and technical terms. This period significantly expanded the vocabulary available for science, medicine, and literature, giving English many of its "SAT words." These borrowings often exist alongside native English cognates (e.g., foot vs. pedestrian).

Global contributions. Beyond European languages, English has borrowed words from languages around the world through trade, exploration, and immigration. From Arabic (algebra, magazine) to Yiddish (chutzpah, schmooze), these borrowings reflect diverse cultural contacts and continue to enrich the lexicon today.

5. Word meanings are not fixed but undergo fascinating semantic shifts over time.

But semantic change doesn’t obey logic.

Meaning evolution. The meanings of words are not static but change over time through processes like generalization (meaning becomes broader, e.g., aroma), narrowing (meaning becomes more specific, e.g., meat), amelioration (meaning becomes more positive, e.g., pretty), and pejoration (meaning becomes more negative, e.g., notorious).

Metaphorical extension. A major driver of semantic change is metaphorical extension, where a word's meaning is extended based on a comparison (e.g., mouse for a computer device). These metaphors can become so ingrained that we no longer recognize them as such (chew on that for considering an idea).

Etymological fallacy. It's tempting to believe a word's "real" meaning is its original one (the etymological fallacy), but current meaning is determined by how speakers use the word now. Words can even shift to mean their opposite (peruse meaning 'skim' instead of 'read carefully', literally meaning 'figuratively').

6. New words are systematically created from existing linguistic parts.

One of the many wonderful things about studying English words is that we make new ones all the time.

Beyond borrowing. While borrowing is significant, the majority of new words in Modern English are created internally using existing English resources. This process is systematic and rule-governed, even if speakers aren't consciously following rules.

Productive processes. Key word formation processes include:

• Affixation: Adding prefixes (re-, e-) or suffixes (-ness, -y) to existing words (geeky, geekiness).
• Compounding: Combining two or more existing words (ice cream, earthquake).
• Shortening: Clipping parts of words (mob from mobile vulgus, flu from influenza) or forming acronyms/initialisms (LOL, FBI).
• Functional Shift: Using a word as a different part of speech without changing its form (google as a verb, impact as a verb).

Playful creativity. Minor processes like blending (smog from smoke + fog) and reduplication (bling bling) also contribute new words, often with a playful or irreverent tone, particularly in slang. This constant creation showcases the inherent creativity of human language users.

7. Pronunciation and spelling are complex, reflecting layers of historical change and human intervention.

Pronunciations of words change subtly and not so subtly all around us.

Spelling as a museum. English spelling is notoriously irregular because it often preserves older pronunciations or reflects historical spelling conventions (like those introduced by Norman scribes). Pronunciation shifts, such as the Great Vowel Shift, occurred after spelling became relatively standardized, creating mismatches between sound and symbol.

Sound changes. Pronunciation changes through processes like metathesis (reversal of sounds, e.g., aks for ask), insertion (hampster for hamster), deletion (offen for often), and assimilation (sounds becoming more like nearby sounds, e.g., sandwich pronounced without the /d/). These changes can happen below the level of conscious awareness.

Conscious meddling. Spelling has also been influenced by conscious efforts to "improve" or rationalize it. Renaissance scholars sometimes changed spellings to reflect Latin origins (debt, doubt), occasionally introducing silent letters or changing pronunciation. Later reformers like Noah Webster aimed to simplify spelling, leading to differences between British and American English (color vs. colour).

8. Language varies significantly by region and social group, shaping identity.

We’ll also journey around the United States to learn why some folks in the South say “might could,” who calls a poached egg a “dropped egg,” and what you do when you make a “Michigan left.”

Dialect diversity. English is not monolithic but exists in numerous varieties, or dialects, that differ systematically in pronunciation, vocabulary, and grammar. These differences are often associated with geographical regions (e.g., the pop/soda/coke divide) or social groups (e.g., African American English).

Isoglosses and boundaries. Linguists map these variations using isoglosses, lines on a map marking the boundary between areas where different linguistic features are used. When multiple isoglosses align, they can indicate a dialect boundary. Large-scale projects like the Dictionary of American Regional English (DARE) document this rich lexical diversity.

Identity and community. Dialects are vital to identity, helping speakers signal their belonging to a particular region or social group. While some dialect features may be stigmatized, they are all systematic and rule-governed forms of language. Despite homogenizing forces like media, regional and social variations persist and remain important markers of community.

9. Grammar rules are often more fluid and usage-driven than prescriptive guides suggest.

Have you ever wondered... whether it matters if you say “I am good” or “I am well”?

Usage vs. prescription. Many common "rules" about English grammar are prescriptive attempts to dictate how language should be used, rather than descriptions of how speakers actually use it. These prescriptions often clash with natural language change and common usage (e.g., the rule against ending a sentence with a preposition).

Evolving forms. Grammatical patterns change over time. Irregular verbs sometimes become regular (helped instead of holp), while occasionally, regular verbs become irregular (snuck instead of sneaked). Noun plurals show historical layers, with some foreign plurals becoming Englishified (syllabuses instead of syllabi) and some native patterns becoming rare (oxen).

Contested usage. Debates over usage, such as I'm good vs. I'm well, feel bad vs. feel badly, or the singular they, highlight the tension between traditional rules and evolving usage. While prescriptive guides may lag, common usage often reflects how speakers are naturally adapting the language to meet their communicative needs.

10. Beyond single words, phrases, idioms, and discourse markers carry crucial meaning.

To talk about words, where they come from, and how they mean, it helps to be generous or expansive with how we’re using word to include things bigger and smaller than what we might first imagine.

Meaningful chunks. Language isn't just built word by word; speakers rely heavily on prefabricated chunks or phrases that function as single units of meaning. These include idioms, whose meaning cannot be predicted from their individual words (kick the bucket, red herring), and phrasal verbs (look up, call off).

Idiom origins. Idioms often have fascinating histories, originating in specific domains like sports (strike out, off base), sailing (know the ropes), or farming (sow wild oats). Their meanings are extended through metaphor and generalization, becoming fixed expressions in the language.

Discourse markers. Seemingly small words or phrases like um, well, like, and you know are not meaningless fillers but crucial discourse markers. They help speakers organize conversation, manage turn-taking, signal relationships, and convey pragmatic information, demonstrating the complex social work language performs.

11. Language is powerful, reflecting and shaping social attitudes and cultural norms.

“Sticks and stones can break my bones, but words can never hurt me” is simply not true, and we know this.

Words have power. Language is a powerful tool, capable of expressing deep emotion, building relationships, establishing identity, and causing harm. Certain words are considered taboo due to their perceived potency, reflecting cultural sensitivities around topics like religion, sex, and marginalized groups.

Social bias in language. Language can embed cultural biases, as seen in asymmetrical word pairs where terms for women take on negative or sexualized connotations compared to male equivalents (spinster vs. *bachelor
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Last updated: May 17, 2025