Two Hundred Years Together

1. A Necessary, Thorny History: Solzhenitsyn's Purpose.

The purpose that guides me throughout this work on the life common the Russians and the Jews consists of looking for all the points necessary for a mutual understanding, all the possible voices which, once we get rid of the bitterness of the past, can lead us towards the future.

Seeking understanding. Solzhenitsyn undertakes this difficult history of Russian-Jewish relations (1795-1995) not to assign blame, but to foster mutual understanding. He acknowledges the sensitivity and complexity, aiming for amplitude and equilibrium where often only one-sided reproaches exist. He believes this history, despite its thorns, must not remain 'forbidden'.

Listening to voices. The author emphasizes the richness of the subject, promising to convey diverse voices, particularly Jewish ones, to the reader. He recognizes the weight of past grievances and accusations from both sides, aiming to navigate this "razor's edge" by plunging into events rather than polemics, except where truth is buried under lies.

Hope for the future. Despite the accumulated mutual wounds in popular memory, Solzhenitsyn calls for both Russians and Jews to acknowledge their share of historical sin. He hopes his work will be received by caring individuals on both sides, ultimately seeking accessible ways towards a better future for their common life.

2. Early Encounters & Religious Strife: Khazars to Muscovy.

The religious basis of this hostility and exclusion is made clear. On this basis, the Jews were not permitted to settle in the Muscovy Rus.

Initial contacts. The paths of Russians and Jews first significantly crossed with the Khazars, whose upper class adopted Judaism. Jewish communities also existed in Crimea. Early interactions in Kievan Rus were marked by trade and some Jewish settlement, even influencing religious discussions before the Christianization of Rus.

Early tensions. The Kiev Pogrom of 1113, while having social roots (usury), also revealed religious and economic friction, leading to temporary expulsions. Later, the "Judaizing Heresy" in Novgorod and Moscow towards the end of the 15th century, involving Jewish influence on Russian spirituals, further solidified religious exclusion in Muscovy.

Muscovy's stance. Ivan IV the Terrible explicitly forbade Jewish entry, citing concerns about Russians being alienated from Christianity and other harms. This established a policy of exclusion based on religious and perceived societal threats, contrasting with the more fluid situation in earlier periods.

3. Polish Crucible: Diaspora, Kahal, and Economic Role.

The whole of Jewish life was guided by the Kahal, which had developed from the communal life of the Jews.

Polish haven. Following the Tatar invasions, many Jews migrated to Poland, where princes and kings often granted them special rights, fostering the growth of a large and influential Jewish community from the 13th to 18th centuries. This community formed the basis of future Russian Jewry.

Internal autonomy. Within Poland, Jewish life was largely governed by the Kahal (Kehilot), an autonomous organization responsible for collecting taxes, regulating commerce, and adjudicating disputes. While initially democratic, the Kahal often became an oligarchy, wielding significant power over the Jewish population, sometimes through oppressive means.

Economic friction. As Polish magnates colonized Ukraine, Jews often served as leaseholders for various industries, notably spirits distillation (propination). This economic role, serving the interests of landlords, brought Jews into conflict with the Orthodox peasantry, contributing to the violence against Jews during the Khmelnitsky uprising in 1648.

4. Catherine II's Ambivalent Embrace: Rights and the Pale's Genesis.

The ukase of 1791 laid the groundwork for setting up the Pale of Settlement, even if it wasn’t so intended.

Acquisition of Jewry. With the partitions of Poland starting in 1772, Russia acquired vast territories with large Jewish populations. Catherine II initially extended existing rights and privileges to these new subjects, aiming for their integration into the general civil structure and encouraging their economic utility.

Attempts at integration. Catherine's policies aimed to break down Jewish isolation by allowing them to register as merchants and townsmen, granting participation in local governance, and even encouraging settlement in "New Russia." This offered Jews civil equality and personal freedom earlier than many other groups in the Empire.

Emergence of restrictions. However, concerns arose regarding Jewish economic practices (spirits trade, usury) and their concentration in certain areas. Attempts to relocate Jews from villages and limit their activities met resistance. The 1791 decree, restricting Jewish merchants to certain provinces, inadvertently created the basis for the future Pale of Settlement, a measure that would later be seen as oppressive.

5. Derzhavin's Unheeded Warning: Economic Conflict and Reform Proposals.

Derzhavin foresaw much that developed in the problematic Russo-Judaic relationship throughout the entire 19th century, even if not in the exact and unexpected form that it took in the event.

Famine and observation. Sent to investigate a famine in Belarus, Senator Derzhavin observed the devastating impact of the spirits trade on peasants, noting the significant role of Jewish leaseholders. His detailed "Memorandum" highlighted the economic exploitation and the isolation of the Jewish community, proposing reforms.

Proposed reforms. Derzhavin advocated for measures to improve peasant life, restrict Jewish involvement in the spirits trade in villages, and encourage Jews towards productive labor like agriculture and crafts. He also proposed educational reforms to integrate Jews into Russian society and weaken the power of the Kahal.

Resistance and legacy. Despite his comprehensive proposals aimed at mutual benefit, Derzhavin faced strong opposition from Polish landowners and Jewish community leaders (Kahal), who saw their interests threatened. His efforts ultimately yielded few immediate results, but his Memorandum provided a foundational, albeit controversial, analysis of the "Jewish Problem" for the Russian government.

6. Alexander I's Liberal Attempts: Colonization and Shifting Policies.

The Regulation of 1804 belongs to the number of acts imbued with the spirit of tolerance.

First comprehensive law. Alexander I's reign saw the first comprehensive "Regulation on Jews" in 1804, which affirmed civil rights, encouraged productive labor (including agriculture with state support), and opened access to general education. It aimed for integration but also stipulated the controversial expulsion of Jews from villages.

Agricultural colonization. The government actively promoted Jewish settlement on agricultural lands, particularly in New Russia, offering incentives and support. However, this ambitious project largely failed due to practical difficulties, lack of agricultural experience among the settlers, and resistance to manual labor, leading to significant state expenditure with limited results.

Inconsistent policies. Despite liberal intentions, Alexander I's policies were often inconsistent and poorly enforced. External events, like Napoleon's actions regarding Jews, also influenced decisions, leading to postponements and revisions of restrictive measures. While some restrictions were lifted, others remained or were reintroduced, reflecting the ongoing struggle to balance integration with existing social and economic tensions.

7. Nicholas I's Resolute State Control: Military Service and Education.

With regard to the Jews, Nicholas I was very resolute.

Increased state intervention. Nicholas I approached the "Jewish Problem" with determination, enacting numerous laws aimed at standardizing Jewish life within the state framework. His policies were often driven by religious concerns and a desire to integrate Jews into Russian society, sometimes through coercive measures.

Military service and cantonists. A key policy was the imposition of compulsory military service on Jews, including the controversial recruitment of minors into cantonist schools. While intended to promote integration and potentially conversion, this measure was often implemented harshly by the Kahal and met with evasion, becoming a source of significant hardship and resentment.

Education and restrictions. Nicholas I also promoted general education for Jews, establishing state-sponsored schools, though these were initially met with distrust by the Jewish masses who feared assimilation and threats to their religious traditions. Despite efforts towards integration, restrictions on Jewish rights, particularly regarding residence and certain economic activities, persisted and were sometimes reinforced, reflecting the ongoing tension between state control and Jewish communal life.

8. Economic Interplay & Social Friction: A Constant Undercurrent.

However, the ingenuity of the Jews and the owners managed to circumvent what was forbidden.

Spirits trade. The spirits trade remained a significant, albeit contentious, economic activity for Jews, particularly in rural areas. Despite repeated government attempts to restrict or prohibit Jewish involvement, the practice persisted due to the economic interests of landowners and the adaptability of Jewish entrepreneurs, often leading to friction with the peasant population.

Land and labor. Jewish involvement in land leasing and the use of peasant labor, sometimes through exploitative practices like "krestentsia" (leasing peasant labor), also created social tension. Despite legal prohibitions, these practices continued, highlighting the challenges of regulating economic interactions and protecting vulnerable populations.

Emerging industries. Beyond traditional trades, Jews increasingly played a significant role in developing new industries and financial sectors, such as sugar production, grain export, timber trade, and banking. This economic dynamism, while contributing to the country's development, also led to competition and sometimes resentment from other segments of the population.

9. Internal Jewish Dynamics: Tradition, Enlightenment, and Authority.

The fact that the Jewish people have held themselves together in their diaspora for 2,000 years inspires wonder and admiration.

Kahal's enduring power. The Kahal system, inherited from the Polish period, continued to exert significant authority over Jewish communal life in Russia. While providing internal governance and a buffer with the state, the Kahal was also criticized for its potential for abuse and its resistance to external influences and reforms, hindering the integration of Jews into broader society.

Religious and cultural currents. Internal Jewish life was marked by various movements, including traditional rabbinic authority, Hasidism, and the Haskala (Enlightenment). These currents sometimes clashed, particularly regarding the role of secular education and the degree of engagement with the surrounding culture, reflecting the internal struggle between preserving tradition and adapting to modernity.

Resistance to assimilation. Despite government efforts and the aspirations of some intellectuals towards assimilation, the majority of the Jewish population, influenced by religious leaders and communal structures, largely resisted integration into Russian society and culture, preferring to maintain their distinct identity and way of life, which contributed to their perceived isolation.

Last updated: May 15, 2025