Unbelievable

1. The Quest for Immortality Drove Early Parapsychology

What is death but the end of all we love? Ghosts are what survive of love. Real or unreal, they are a testament to love, and the hope that no matter what, love lasts.

Deep human longing. The book opens by framing the study of the paranormal as a profound human desire to overcome loss and the finality of death. This emotional core, the "love story" inherent in every ghost story, fueled the initial investigations into unseen phenomena. People desperately sought proof that something of their loved ones, and themselves, survived physical demise.

Scientific pursuit of survival. J. B. and Louisa Rhine, driven by this fundamental question, sought a scientific path to validate the survival hypothesis. They aimed to move the concept of life after death from the realm of belief and spiritualism into verifiable fact, demanding repeatable experiments and convincing evidence that could withstand scientific scrutiny. This quest led them to Duke University, a "clean slate" for their ambitious research.

Early influences. Their journey began with examining mediums like Mina Crandon, whose performances, though often fraudulent, highlighted the public's intense interest. The meticulous notes of John Thomas, who believed he communicated with his deceased wife, further spurred the Rhines' conviction that genuine phenomena might exist, even if the source (dead vs. telepathy) remained unclear. This foundational motivation shaped the entire trajectory of the Duke Parapsychology Laboratory.

2. From Parlor Tricks to Scientific Rigor: The Rhine's Revolution

If we can never know to a relative certainty that there was no trickery possible, no inconsistencies present, and no normal action occurring, we can never have a science and never really know anything about psychic phenomena.

Rejecting charlatanism. The Rhines were appalled by the rampant fraud in spiritualism, exemplified by mediums like Mina Crandon, whose séances involved questionable "ectoplasmic emissions" and obvious trickery. Their scathing report on Crandon, published in a scientific journal, marked their commitment to separating genuine psychic phenomena from mere entertainment or deception. This critical stance was crucial for establishing credibility in a field rife with charlatans.

Embracing experimental design. Under the guidance of Dr. William McDougall, the Rhines shifted their focus from investigating mediums to designing controlled experiments. They recognized that subjective experiences, however compelling, would never convince the scientific community. The goal was to create repeatable tests that could isolate and measure psychic abilities, moving parapsychology from darkened parlors into the "bright and unemotional light of the laboratory."

Developing new tools. This pursuit led to the creation of the Zener cards, designed by psychologist Karl Zener, to eliminate bias and provide unambiguous results (right or wrong guesses). This innovation, along with strict controls like sealed envelopes and distance, aimed to prove telepathy and clairvoyance empirically. This methodological rigor, though often criticized, laid the groundwork for what J. B. Rhine termed "extrasensory perception" (ESP), a more palatable term for scientific discourse.

3. ESP and PK: Lab-Tested Phenomena, Not Just Belief

The success of Rhine’s E.S.P. work,” McDougall proclaimed, “is about the only bright spot in a dark world.”

Groundbreaking experiments. The Duke Parapsychology Laboratory conducted hundreds of thousands of trials, primarily focusing on ESP and psychokinesis (PK). J. B. Rhine's most astounding subject, Hubert Pearce, a divinity student, consistently scored far above chance in Zener card tests, even at a distance. These results, with odds against chance of "one in an octillion," provided compelling statistical evidence for the existence of ESP.

Expanding the scope. Beyond telepathy, the lab also investigated psychokinesis, the ability to influence physical objects with the mind. Inspired by a gambler's claim, they devised dice-rolling experiments, finding that subjects could weakly influence the fall of dice. Later, "PK Parties" with children using colored disks further explored this phenomenon, suggesting that PK, though weak, was a real effect.

Statistical validation. Despite initial skepticism, the lab's statistical methods received validation from leading mathematicians and statisticians, including Sir Ronald Aylmer Fisher and the Institute of Mathematical Statistics. They concluded that, assuming proper experimental performance, the statistical analysis was "essentially valid." This endorsement was a significant, though often overlooked, turning point in the scientific debate surrounding parapsychology.

4. The Elusive Nature of Psi: Challenges in Replication and Control

The experiment necessarily excludes the human emotions that make ESP possible.

The human element. The Rhines quickly discovered that psi abilities were not consistent or easily controlled. Hubert Pearce's extraordinary scores, for instance, vanished after a personal setback (a "Dear John" letter), highlighting the crucial role of emotional and psychological factors. This inherent variability made consistent replication, a cornerstone of scientific proof, incredibly difficult.

Controlling for variables. The lab constantly refined its methods to address criticisms and eliminate alternative explanations. They used screens, sealed envelopes, and distance to prevent sensory leakage. However, the very act of imposing strict laboratory controls often seemed to diminish the spontaneous and emotional elements that appeared to facilitate psi, creating a Catch-22 for researchers.

Persistent skepticism. Despite rigorous controls and statistical validation, critics continued to attack the lab's findings, often without fully understanding the methodology or statistics. Accusations of fraud, delusion, or incompetence persisted, forcing the Rhines to repeatedly defend their work and fight the "same battles again and again," hindering broader scientific acceptance and progress.

5. Spontaneous Cases: Ghosts as Mind-Generated Phenomena

If you were going to construct a ghost to warn you about something, it made sense that you’d evoke the image of someone more likely to want to protect you.

Louisa Rhine's shift. Faced with a standstill in laboratory research, Louisa Rhine initiated the "Spontaneous Case Collection," analyzing thousands of letters detailing personal psychic experiences, or "ghost stories." She categorized these as intuition, dreams, and hallucinations, viewing apparitions not as external spirits but as "pseudosensory" manifestations of information gained via ESP, brought to conscious awareness through a "visual drama."

Auditory phenomena. A key discovery from Louie's research was that people reported hearing ghosts more often than seeing them. These "auditory hallucinations" – footsteps, voices, knocks – were interpreted as the mind's way of conveying telepathically received information, such as a warning of danger or a loved one's death. This theory suggested the extraordinary power of the human mind to create sensory experiences from unconscious psi data.

Challenges to the theory. While Louie's theory offered a scientific framework, it faced challenges. Cases where multiple people witnessed the same apparition, or where information (like an outdated stenography) seemed beyond the percipient's knowledge, strained the "super-ESP" hypothesis. Despite these inconsistencies, Louie remained open, concluding that a small percentage of cases might still suggest "incorporeal personal agency" (actual ghosts).

6. Psychics in Practice: Unreliable Aid in Real-World Crises

What better use in all the world could he find for his ability than trying to help you find the little lad you have lost? Shame on him if he doesn’t, I would say, and I think all the world would feel the same.

Desperate pleas. The lab received countless letters from individuals seeking help with real-world tragedies, particularly missing persons and murder cases. The heart-wrenching plea from Joseph Kremen, whose six-year-old son Bruce disappeared, exemplifies the public's desperate hope that psi abilities could offer answers where conventional methods failed.

The Hurkos dilemma. J. B. Rhine, while cautious, sometimes referred families to psychics like Peter Hurkos. Hurkos, a former house painter, gained fame for his alleged abilities, but his involvement in cases like Bruce Kremen's disappearance or the Boston Strangler murders often led to false leads, emotional distress for families, and no concrete solutions. His claims were frequently exaggerated and unsubstantiated.

Skepticism and ethics. Rhine himself was wary of psychics, noting their unreliability and tendency towards self-promotion. He believed that while some might possess genuine abilities, their lack of control and ethical issues made them unsuitable for scientific study or practical application in law enforcement. The "blue sense" of psychic sleuths, while intriguing, consistently failed to meet the burden of proof required for scientific or legal acceptance.

7. Psychedelics and Psi: A Brief, Unfruitful Alliance

Tripping might be fun, but if they couldn’t learn anything from the voyage, Rhine would just as soon stay home.

Exploring enhancement. J. B. Rhine, despite his cautious nature, was eventually persuaded to explore the potential of hallucinogenic drugs like psilocybin to enhance psi abilities. Influenced by Aldous Huxley's writings and the enthusiastic Timothy Leary, Rhine and his staff participated in psilocybin experiments, hoping these "fantastical drugs" could "unplug" the mind and liberate latent ESP.

Mixed results and concerns. The initial "boat ride" with Leary yielded mixed results; Rhine found the emotional connection "deep and genuine" but the physical effects minimal and the scientific insights limited. Other staff members experienced discomfort or skepticism. Concerns about control, reproducibility, and the unpredictable nature of drug-induced states quickly led Rhine to conclude that psychedelics were "too unpredictable to serve a useful purpose in a controlled experiment."

Public and military interest. Despite Rhine's reservations, public interest in psychedelics and psi surged, with figures like Eileen Garrett also experimenting. The military, particularly the CIA, also explored hallucinogens for mind control (MK-Ultra) and ESP for intelligence gathering, though often denying official involvement. This brief, controversial intersection highlighted the desperate search for any means to unlock the mind's hidden powers, regardless of the scientific rigor.

8. Government Interest: The Cold War's Psychic Arms Race

If the Russian have a research program more developed than the one we heard about,” he wrote to one Air Force official, it’s not likely that they’d volunteer information about it.

Fear of the unknown. The Cold War era spurred U.S. government interest in parapsychology, driven by intelligence reports of Soviet psychic research. The fear of a "parapsychological Sputnik" – a Russian breakthrough in telepathy or psychokinesis with military applications – prompted various agencies, including the Air Force and CIA, to cautiously investigate psi phenomena, despite public denials.

Covert programs. While mainstream science remained skeptical, covert programs like Stargate (established in 1978) were funded by Congress for nearly two decades, exploring "remote viewing" for intelligence gathering. Remote viewers like Joseph McMoneagle provided information that, according to him, "could not be obtained from any other intelligence source," suggesting some level of utility, even if control and verification remained challenging.

Limited acceptance. Despite the millions of dollars invested and some intriguing results, the military ultimately terminated these programs due to a lack of consistent control and the difficulty of integrating such "anomalous phenomena" into conventional intelligence frameworks. The "Manhattan Project for the paranormal" that Rhine envisioned never materialized, underscoring the persistent institutional resistance to phenomena that defied established physical laws.

9. The Enduring Stalemate: Evidence Without Acceptance

I cannot reject the evidence and I cannot accept the conclusions.

The Weaver dilemma. Warren Weaver, a respected former president of the AAAS, articulated the core dilemma facing parapsychology: compelling evidence that could not be easily dismissed, yet conclusions that defied conventional scientific understanding. This intellectual discomfort, often bordering on prejudice, prevented widespread acceptance, even when critics' specific objections were disproven or addressed.

Persistent attacks. Decades after the initial experiments, Rhine's work continued to be attacked, often with flawed arguments or outright misrepresentations, such as Mark Hansel's "trapdoor theory" to explain Hubert Pearce's results. This relentless skepticism, sometimes driven by a desire to "prove his positive conclusions wrong," ensured that parapsychology remained on the fringes of mainstream science, despite its methodological rigor.

A field in limbo. The Parapsychological Association's eventual acceptance into the AAAS in 1969, largely due to Margaret Mead's advocacy, was a symbolic victory but did not translate into widespread scientific embrace or funding. The field remained in a "stalemate," with data suggesting anomalies but no universally accepted theory to explain them, leaving the fundamental questions about consciousness and survival unanswered.

10. The Legacy of the Rhines: A Foundation for Consciousness Research

The work done at Duke could some day change everything. Or it could be added to the list of scientific ideas that seemed like a good idea at the time.

Pioneering spirit. J. B. and Louisa Rhine dedicated their lives to scientifically investigating phenomena that most academics dismissed. Their relentless pursuit, despite professional ostracism and financial struggles, established parapsychology as a distinct field of inquiry. They were pioneers, driven by a "devotion to the field" and the "sense of satisfaction" of exploring the unknown.

Shifting focus. Towards the end of his career, Rhine emphasized understanding the "hidden part of man's nature" and the "unknown side of human personality represented by psi," rather than solely proving life after death. This shift positioned parapsychology as a quest to understand human potential and consciousness, aligning with emerging scientific interests in quantum physics and information theory.

Unresolved mysteries. While the Rhines did not achieve the definitive "ESP breakthrough" or universal acceptance they sought, their work left a legacy of "tantalizing sparks" and "anomalies" that continue to challenge conventional science. Modern researchers, like those at the Rhine Center and Division of Perceptual Studies, continue to explore consciousness, nonlocality, and the potential for psi phenomena, suggesting that the "magnificent mysteries of existence" may yet yield to scientific inquiry.

Last updated: August 14, 2025