We Are Electric

1. Bioelectricity: The Body's Ancient Language

It is hard to overstate how wholly and utterly your every movement, perception, and thought are controlled by electrical signals.

Beyond Batteries. Bioelectricity isn't just about the electricity that powers devices; it's the natural electrical current within living beings. Unlike electron-based electricity, bioelectricity relies on ions like potassium, sodium, and calcium. This bioelectric activity is not confined to the nervous system; every cell in the body uses voltage to communicate.

Cellular Power Plants. Each of the body's 40 trillion cells acts as a tiny battery, maintaining a voltage difference across its membrane. This voltage, though small, generates electrical fields that facilitate communication between cells and tissues. When nerve impulses travel, channels open in the neuron, and millions of ions get instantly sucked through them into and out of the extracellular space, taking all their charge with them.

Universal Language. Bioelectric signals aren't unique to humans; they're found in everything from algae to E. coli. Plants use them to warn of predators, fungi use them to locate food, and bacteria use them to form antibiotic-resistant communities. This underscores bioelectricity's fundamental role in life itself.

2. Galvani vs. Volta: The Birth of Bioelectric Skepticism

We could never suppose that fortune were to be so friendly to me, such as to allow us to be perhaps the first in handling, as it were, the electricity concealed in nerves.

The Frog Dance Master. Luigi Galvani's experiments with frogs in the late 18th century revealed that electricity is the substance that courses through all living things, underpinning their every move and intention. He discovered that electricity is what lets us move our muscles. However, his findings sparked a scientific war with Alessandro Volta, who argued that the electricity came from the metals used in the experiments, not from the animals themselves.

The Rise of Physics. Volta's invention of the battery, which produced a continuous flow of electricity, overshadowed Galvani's work and led to the dominance of physics in the study of electricity. This schism shaped the way subsequent generations of scientists approached the idea of electricity in biology.

A Lasting Divide. The Galvani-Volta battle set the stage for the separation of biology and physics, with biologists shying away from electricity and physicists focusing on its applications in machines and technology. This division hindered the progress of bioelectricity research for decades.

3. From Frog Legs to the Electrome: A Century of Rediscovery

Among the delusions which have succeeded in imposing on men of education and position, it is pre-eminent.

The Quackery Problem. After Galvani's death, his nephew Giovanni Aldini attempted to revive his uncle's reputation by staging sensational demonstrations of galvanism on animal and human corpses. However, these spectacles blurred the line between legitimate science and electroquackery, further discrediting the field.

Humboldt's Influence. Alexander von Humboldt, a champion of Galvani's work, encouraged young scientists to study animal electricity. Carlo Matteucci's frog battery and Emil du Bois-Reymond's discovery of the action potential helped to re-establish bioelectricity as a legitimate scientific pursuit.

The Neuron Doctrine. The work of Camillo Golgi and Santiago Ramón y Cajal, who won a Nobel Prize in 1906, established that the nervous system was composed of cells called neurons, which could pass electrical signals from the brain to the nerves and muscles, and back. This was the first time we understood how the nervous system worked.

4. The Electrome: Mapping Our Body's Electrical Landscape

[A] full understanding of life will come only from unravelling its computational mechanisms.

Beyond the Genome. The electrome encompasses the electrical dimensions and properties of cells, tissues, and organs, as well as the electrical forces involved in every aspect of life. Just as decoding the genome led to the rules by which information like eye color is encoded in our DNA, bioelectricity researchers predict that decoding the electrome will help us to decipher our body’s multilayered communications systems and give us a way to control them.

The Action Potential. The discovery of ions and ion channels by Hodgkin and Huxley revealed the mechanism by which electrical signals are transmitted along neurons. These signals, known as action potentials, are generated by the movement of ions across the cell membrane.

A New Frontier. The identification of the genome and microbiome proved crucial steps to understanding the full complexity of biology, but some scientists think it’s now time to plot the outlines of the “electrome”: the electrical dimensions and properties of cells, the tissues they collaborate to form, and the electrical forces that are turning out to be involved in every aspect of life.

5. Hacking the Heart: Electricity's Role in Cardiac Control

Wonderful as are the laws and phenomena of electricity when made evident to us in inorganic or dead matter, their interest can bear scarcely any comparison with that which attaches to the same force when connected with the nervous system and with life.

Listening to the Heart. Augustus Waller's demonstration of the electrical activity of the heart paved the way for Willem Einthoven's invention of the electrocardiogram (ECG), a tool that allowed doctors to diagnose heart conditions by analyzing the patterns of electrical signals.

The Heart's Conductor. The sinus node, a group of cells in the upper right part of the heart, acts as the conductor, coordinating all the cells of the heart into a precise rhythm that ensures blood only ever enters one specific kind of chamber and only ever exits another specific type. This is quite a precise rhythm to orchestrate, and high stakes! If you do it wrong, the heart can’t coordinate the blood distribution around the body properly and the body will die.

The Pacemaker. The discovery that electrical stimulation could regulate the heart's rhythm led to the development of the pacemaker, a device that delivers electrical pulses to the heart to maintain a normal heartbeat. The pacemaker is implanted much the way Hyman did it. Fortunately, no one uses a needle to pierce the heart anymore. Instead, an electrode is surgically implanted on the faulty spot that’s causing the trouble.

6. Decoding the Brain: The Promise and Peril of Neural Interfaces

Consider: the hero endures; even his downfall merely foretells his eventual rebirth.

The Neural Code. The idea that the brain uses electrical signals to encode information has led to the development of neural interfaces, devices that can read and write electrical activity in the brain. These interfaces hold the promise of treating neurological disorders, restoring lost functions, and even enhancing human capabilities.

Brain-Computer Interfaces. BrainGate, a neural interface system, has allowed paralyzed individuals to control computer cursors and robotic arms with their thoughts. However, the technology faces challenges related to biocompatibility, signal degradation, and ethical concerns.

The Electrome and the Bioelectric Code. Just as decoding the genome led us to the rules by which information like eye color is encoded in our DNA, bioelectricity researchers predict that decoding the electrome will help us to decipher our body’s multilayered communications systems and give us a way to control them.

7. The Healing Spark: Bioelectricity and Tissue Regeneration

Consider: the hero endures; even his downfall merely foretells his eventual rebirth.

Wound Currents. The discovery that injured tissues emit electrical signals, known as wound currents, led to the exploration of bioelectricity's role in tissue regeneration. These currents act as beacons, attracting cells to the injury site and guiding the healing process.

The Oscillating Field Stimulator. Richard Borgens's oscillating field stimulator (OFS) showed promise in promoting spinal cord regeneration in dogs and humans. However, the technology faced challenges related to funding, regulatory hurdles, and scientific skepticism.

The Electrome and the Bioelectric Code. Just as decoding the genome led us to the rules by which information like eye color is encoded in our DNA, bioelectricity researchers predict that decoding the electrome will help us to decipher our body’s multilayered communications systems and give us a way to control them.

8. Cancer's Electrical Signature: A New Frontier in Treatment

Consider: the hero endures; even his downfall merely foretells his eventual rebirth.

Electrical Imbalance. Researchers have discovered that cancer cells exhibit distinct electrical properties, including altered membrane voltages and the expression of specific ion channels. These electrical signatures may play a role in cancer's growth, metastasis, and resistance to treatment.

Targeting Ion Channels. The identification of cancer-specific ion channels has opened up new avenues for targeted therapies. Drugs that block these channels may be able to disrupt cancer's electrical communication networks and prevent its spread.

The Electrome and the Bioelectric Code. Just as decoding the genome led us to the rules by which information like eye color is encoded in our DNA, bioelectricity researchers predict that decoding the electrome will help us to decipher our body’s multilayered communications systems and give us a way to control them.

9. Beyond Silicon: The Future of Bioelectronic Materials

Consider: the hero endures; even his downfall merely foretells his eventual rebirth.

The Biocompatibility Challenge. Traditional electronic materials, such as silicon and metals, are often incompatible with biological tissues, leading to inflammation, scarring, and device failure. Researchers are exploring new materials that are more biocompatible and can better interface with the body's electrical signals.

Squid-Inspired Electronics. The discovery that squid pen and other marine materials possess unique electrical properties has led to the development of bioelectronic devices made from biological materials. These devices may offer improved biocompatibility and the ability to control ion flow.

The Electrome and the Bioelectric Code. Just as decoding the genome led us to the rules by which information like eye color is encoded in our DNA, bioelectricity researchers predict that decoding the electrome will help us to decipher our body’s multilayered communications systems and give us a way to control them.

10. Electrifying Ourselves Better: A Cautious Path Forward

Consider: the hero endures; even his downfall merely foretells his eventual rebirth.

Ethical Considerations. As bioelectricity research advances, it's crucial to consider the ethical implications of manipulating the body's electrical signals. Questions about safety, access, and the potential for misuse must be addressed.

The Importance of Transparency. Open communication and collaboration between scientists, ethicists, and the public are essential for ensuring that bioelectricity research is conducted responsibly and benefits all of humanity.

The Electrome and the Bioelectric Code. Just as decoding the genome led us to the rules by which information like eye color is encoded in our DNA, bioelectricity researchers predict that decoding the electrome will help us to decipher our body’s multilayered communications systems and give us a way to control them.

Last updated: April 23, 2025