White Malice

1. Ghana's Independence Ignited Pan-African Dreams

‘Our independence’, he insisted, ‘is meaningless unless it is linked up with the total liberation of the African continent’.

Freedom at midnight. On March 6, 1957, Ghana became the first Black-majority country in Africa to gain independence from colonial rule, sparking immense joy and hope across the continent and the diaspora. Led by Prime Minister Kwame Nkrumah, the nation celebrated the end of British occupation, symbolized by the lowering of the Union Jack and the raising of the new Ghanaian flag. This moment was seen not just as national liberation but as a catalyst for freedom throughout Africa.

A vision for unity. Nkrumah believed that the only way for Africa to truly be free and prosperous was through unity, proposing a "United States of Africa." Inspired by the American model of thirteen colonies uniting, he envisioned a federation of African nations pooling their resources and skills to build a self-sufficient economy. This bold, visionary goal aimed to overcome the divisions imposed by colonial borders and create a powerful, nonaligned force on the world stage.

Inspiring a continent. Ghana's independence ceremony drew leaders and activists from across Africa and the world, including figures like Martin Luther King Jr., who saw parallels between the African liberation struggle and the American civil rights movement. Nkrumah's call for total African liberation resonated deeply, positioning Ghana as a beacon of hope and a base for freedom fighters seeking to end colonial and white supremacist rule everywhere from North to South Africa.

2. The Congo's Brutal Colonial Past Shaped Its Fragile Future

Here, argued Kwame Nkrumah, the purpose of Belgian rule had been ‘not to suppress slavery, but to change its nature… to make slavery more profitable by employing the slave in the Congo and thus avoid the difficulties caused by the international abolition of the trade in its old-fashioned form’.

Leopold's horrific legacy. The Congo Free State, King Leopold II's personal possession from 1885, was a regime of unparalleled brutality, built on forced labor for rubber and ivory extraction. Atrocities like bodily mutilation and murder were systematic, leading to an estimated ten million deaths – a death toll of "holocaust proportions." Although control passed to the Belgian government in 1908, exploitation and segregation continued, leaving the Congolese people with virtually no preparation for self-governance.

Pitiless exploitation. Belgian rule prioritized resource extraction over human development. Congolese workers were subjected to harsh conditions, forced labor, and violence, including the use of the chicotte whip. Strategic minerals like copper, cobalt, and diamonds were mined day and night, fueling Belgian and international industries, while the Congolese miners received meager wages and suffered severe health effects from exposure to toxic materials like uranium.

Deep-seated injustice. The Belgian administration maintained a rigid system of racial segregation, physically separating Europeans from Congolese in cities and denying Africans access to education, healthcare, and skilled positions. By independence in 1960, the vast territory had fewer than thirty African university graduates and only three Congolese in management-level civil service roles. This deliberate underdevelopment created a fragile foundation for the new nation, leaving it vulnerable to external manipulation.

3. Strategic Resources Made the Congo a Cold War Prize

‘The Belgian Congo’, wrote a senior chemical engineer involved in the work of the Manhattan Project in 1943 to L R Groves, the director of the project, ‘offers natural resources of extreme importance to our domestic economy. Its known resources of uranium, which are the world’s largest, are vital to the welfare of the United States’.

Uranium's critical role. The Shinkolobwe mine in Katanga province held the world's richest uranium ore, essential for the US Manhattan Project and the development of the first atomic bombs. This unique resource made the Belgian Congo strategically vital to the United States, particularly as the Cold War intensified and the US sought to prevent Soviet access to such materials. The US government took steps to ensure continued access, including financing mine expansion and considering military intervention if necessary.

Beyond uranium. While Shinkolobwe's uranium was paramount, the Congo possessed other vast and valuable mineral resources, including:

• Copper
• Cobalt (a critical mineral for weapons systems)
• Industrial diamonds
• Tin

These resources, coupled with the Congo's central geographic location, made it a key strategic region in Africa. US officials recognized that military control of the Congo would provide access to most of the continent south of the Sahara, making its fate crucial to the global balance of power.

A prize to be controlled. The US viewed the Congo as a critical asset that could not fall under Soviet influence. This perspective shaped US policy, leading to increased intelligence gathering, the establishment of a dedicated Africa Division within the CIA, and a willingness to support "strong men" in Africa, even if it meant undermining democratic processes, to secure American access to vital resources and maintain strategic control in the region.

4. The CIA Infiltrated Africa with Covert Operations and Fronts

‘The activities of the C.I.A. no longer surprise us.… Further examples of C.I.A. activity… in Africa could be given. They would provide material for a book of their own.’

A new battleground. As African nations moved towards independence, the US saw the continent as a crucial new front in the Cold War. Recognizing the strategic importance of Africa's resources and geography, the US government, particularly under Eisenhower, prioritized gaining influence and preventing Soviet penetration. This led to the creation of a dedicated Africa Division within the CIA's Directorate of Plans in late 1959, tasked with clandestine operations and recruiting foreign agents.

Covert networks and fronts. The CIA established a wide-ranging network across Africa, often operating under deep cover or through seemingly independent organizations. Examples included:

• The African-American Institute (AAI)
• The American Society of African Culture (AMSAC)
• The Congress for Cultural Freedom (CCF)
• Various trade union organizations (like the AFL-CIO's international arm)
• Publishing houses and cultural centers

These fronts received secret funding, often channeled through foundations, and were used to gather intelligence, promote pro-Western views, and cultivate relationships with emerging African leaders and intellectuals, often without their knowledge of the CIA connection.

Undermining opposition. The CIA's covert activities aimed to counter perceived Soviet influence and undermine leaders or movements deemed unfavorable to US interests. This involved:

• Spying on African nationalists and organizations
• Spreading propaganda and disinformation
• Bribing politicians and military figures
• Fomenting division among African groups

These actions, often hidden behind a facade of cultural exchange or development aid, were part of a broader strategy to shape the political landscape of newly independent African nations in favor of the United States and its allies.

5. The All African People's Conference Fostered Unity and Exposed Leaders

‘Never before’, he said, ‘has it been possible for so representative a gathering of African freedom fighters not only to come together, but to assemble in a free independent African state for the purpose of planning for a final assault upon imperialism and colonialism’.

A historic gathering. In December 1958, Ghana hosted the All African People's Conference (AAPC) in Accra, bringing together over three hundred political and trade union leaders from across the continent for the first time. This landmark event, inspired by Nkrumah's vision and organized by George Padmore, aimed to unite African freedom movements and strategize for total liberation. The atmosphere was electric, filled with hope and determination, symbolized by the banner declaring "Hands Off Africa! Africa Must Be Free!"

Unity and strategy. The conference served as a crucial platform for African nationalists to connect, share experiences, and forge a common path forward. Discussions focused on achieving independence, resisting neocolonialism, and building African unity. While initially emphasizing nonviolent resistance, the conference was profoundly influenced by Frantz Fanon's impassioned argument that violence might be necessary to counter colonial brutality, shifting the consensus towards struggle "by any means."

A target for intelligence. The AAPC's significance did not escape the attention of foreign powers, including the United States. While the US sent an official delegation, the CIA also had covert representatives present, monitoring the proceedings and identifying key figures. Patrice Lumumba, then relatively unknown outside the Belgian Congo, emerged as a prominent leader at the conference, attracting the attention of both Nkrumah and the CIA, setting the stage for future alliances and conflicts.

6. Lumumba's Vision for a United Congo Threatened Western Interests

‘The fundamental aim of our movement’, he declared, ‘is to free the Congolese people from the colonialist regime and earn them their independence’.

From évolué to nationalist. Patrice Lumumba's political views evolved from initially seeing colonialism as a positive force to becoming a passionate advocate for immediate independence and a united Congo. His experiences with Belgian racism and the inspiration of African nationalist movements, particularly at the 1958 AAPC, fueled his commitment to a multiethnic state free from foreign domination. His charisma and powerful oratory quickly made him a leading voice for change.

A national movement. Lumumba founded the Mouvement National Congolais (MNC) in 1958, aiming to build a political party with nationwide appeal, resisting the regional and ethnic divisions fostered by the Belgian administration. His call for "Indépendance Immédiate!" resonated with the Congolese people, particularly after the violent riots in Leopoldville in January 1959, which accelerated the timeline for independence but also highlighted the deep-seated tensions within the colony.

Threat to the status quo. Lumumba's vision of a truly independent and unified Congo, controlling its vast resources for the benefit of its people, posed a direct threat to Belgian and Western economic interests, particularly those tied to the lucrative mining operations in Katanga. His growing popularity and perceived left-leaning tendencies, amplified by his association with Nkrumah and the nonaligned movement, made him a target for foreign powers determined to maintain influence and control over the Congo's strategic wealth.

7. The US Actively Worked to Undermine Lumumba's Government

‘Lumumba’s removal’, it read, ‘must be an urgent and prime object and… should be a high priority of our covert actions’.

A perceived threat. Following the Congo's independence in June 1960 and the subsequent army mutiny and Belgian intervention, the US government quickly came to view Prime Minister Patrice Lumumba as a dangerous figure. Despite his initial appeals to the US for help against Belgian troops, his perceived anti-Western stance, his relationship with Nkrumah, and his appeal to the Soviet Union for aid (after being denied by the US) solidified American opposition. US officials, including CIA Director Allen Dulles, compared him unfavorably to Fidel Castro and believed he was under communist influence.

Authorizing covert action. At the highest levels of the US government, including the National Security Council and the Special Group overseeing covert operations, the decision was made to remove Lumumba from power. This authorization, stemming from President Eisenhower's strong desire to see Lumumba eliminated, gave the CIA station in Leopoldville broad latitude and significant funds to achieve this objective. The stated aim was to prevent a perceived communist takeover, but it was also driven by a desire to protect US economic and strategic interests in the Congo.

Undermining legitimacy. The CIA and US officials employed various tactics to weaken Lumumba's government and promote pro-Western alternatives. These included:

• Bribing Congolese politicians and military figures (like Mobutu, Kasavubu, and Adoula)
• Orchestrating anti-Lumumba demonstrations
• Spreading disinformation and propaganda (including forged letters)
• Lobbying at the United Nations to secure recognition for the Kasavubu/Mobutu regime

These actions aimed to create political instability, undermine Lumumba's authority, and pave the way for a government more amenable to US influence and control.

8. The CIA Plotted Lumumba's Assassination and Facilitated His Capture

‘My feeling definitely’, he stated to the Church Committee, ‘is that it was for a specific purpose, and was just not an all-purpose capability there, being held for targets of opportunity, unspecified targets’.

The poison plot. Following the high-level decision to remove Lumumba, the CIA developed plans for his assassination. Dr. Sidney Gottlieb, head of the Technical Services Division, personally delivered a poison kit to CIA Chief of Station Larry Devlin in Leopoldville, with instructions to administer a lethal substance that would mimic death by natural causes. This plot, code-named YQPROP, was authorized at the highest levels, including by President Eisenhower.

Obstacles to the plot. Despite the authorization and the provision of means, assassinating Lumumba proved difficult. He was under the protection of UN troops, making it hard to gain access to him. The CIA explored various methods, including using a high-powered rifle or a commando-style abduction, but these were deemed too risky or impractical given the security around his residence. The presence of UN guards, particularly those from Ghana loyal to Nkrumah, complicated direct action.

Facilitating capture. When Lumumba decided to leave his residence and travel to Stanleyville, the CIA saw an opportunity. While the CIA claimed no direct involvement in his departure or capture, evidence suggests otherwise. CIA agent QJWIN was tasked with finding ways to lure Lumumba out of UN protection, potentially using deception and individuals posing as UN personnel. Lumumba's subsequent capture by Mobutu's forces, who were receiving CIA funds and support, delivered him into the hands of his bitter enemies, ultimately leading to his death.

9. Lumumba's Murder Devastated Hopes for a Free and United Congo

‘His cruel end’, Dayal believed, ‘was a catastrophe for the Congo and a tragedy for Africa’.

A brutal end. After his capture in Kasai, Patrice Lumumba was flown to Elisabethville, Katanga, where he was brutally tortured and executed on January 17, 1961, along with his companions Maurice Mpolo and Joseph Okito. The murder was carried out by Katangan forces with the complicity of Belgian officers and the backing of the Katangan government, which was supported by Belgian and Western interests. The deliberate destruction of their bodies with acid aimed to erase any trace of the men.

Global outrage and disbelief. The news of Lumumba's death, announced weeks later, sparked shock and anger worldwide. Protests erupted in cities across the globe, condemning the assassination and blaming the UN and Western powers for failing to protect him. Few believed the official explanation of an escape and subsequent killing by villagers. Lumumba's death became a symbol of the struggle against neocolonialism and the tragic consequences of foreign interference in African affairs.

Shattered dreams. Lumumba's assassination dealt a severe blow to the aspirations for a united and independent Congo, as well as the broader Pan-African movement. His death removed a powerful voice for national unity and self-determination, paving the way for increased fragmentation and external control. The subsequent conflict and instability in the Congo, fueled by foreign intervention and the struggle for control over resources, led to immense suffering and hindered the nation's development for decades.

10. US Interference Extended to Ghana, Targeting Nkrumah

‘Intensive efforts’, it instructed, ‘should be made through psychological warfare and other means to diminish support for Nkrumah within Ghana and nurture the conviction among the Ghanaian people that their country’s welfare and independence necessitate his removal’.

Nkrumah's growing opposition. As Nkrumah pursued his Pan-African vision and implemented policies aimed at economic independence and social development, he increasingly clashed with Western interests. His nonaligned stance, his support for liberation movements, and his criticism of neocolonialism, particularly in his book Neo-colonialism: The Last Stage of Imperialism, drew the ire of the US government. US officials viewed him as a threat and believed he was leaning towards the Soviet bloc.

Covert efforts to destabilize. The US government, including the CIA, engaged in covert activities aimed at undermining Nkrumah's rule. This involved:

• Cultivating relationships with Ghanaian politicians opposed to Nkrumah, such as Komla Gbedemah
• Providing financial support to opposition figures
• Spreading propaganda and disinformation to erode public support
• Encouraging and potentially assisting plots to overthrow Nkrumah

These efforts were part of a broader strategy to replace Nkrumah with a more pro-Western leader who would align Ghana's policies with US interests, particularly regarding economic development and foreign relations.

The coup and its aftermath. The culmination of these efforts was the military coup on February 24, 1966, which overthrew Nkrumah's government while he was abroad. The coup leaders, some with ties to the US and previous involvement in the Congo crisis, quickly established a pro-Western regime. While the US government publicly denied direct involvement, internal documents reveal prior knowledge and support for the plotters. Nkrumah's overthrow marked a significant setback for the Pan-African movement and led to the dismantling of many of his development initiatives.

11. Covert Actions Sowed Division and Hindered African Self-Determination

‘Many criticisms’, wrote Dick Bissell in a 1996 memoir, ‘have been levelled at the CIA for its activities during the 1950s and 1960s, especially in the field of covert action. Having rethought this policy many times since then, I am convinced that the agency acted in the government’s best interest in attempting to preserve the highly desired principle of democracy’.

A web of interference. The CIA's covert operations in Africa during the decolonization era were extensive and multifaceted, extending beyond Ghana and the Congo to influence events in numerous other countries. These actions, often hidden from public view and even from other parts of the US government, aimed to shape the political landscape of newly independent nations in favor of US interests, primarily preventing perceived communist influence and securing access to strategic resources.

Undermining unity and democracy. The US actively worked to counter the Pan-African vision of unity and self-determination championed by leaders like Nkrumah and Lumumba. This involved:

• Fostering divisions among African political groups and liberation movements (e.g., in Angola)
• Supporting conservative or pro-Western factions, even if they lacked popular support
• Interfering in democratic processes, including elections and parliamentary proceedings
• Using propaganda and cultural fronts to promote pro-Western ideologies

These actions, justified by the rhetoric of the Cold War and the fight against communism, often undermined the very democratic principles the US claimed to uphold and contributed to instability and conflict across the continent.

A lasting legacy. The legacy of this covert interference is profound and enduring. By prioritizing strategic and economic interests over the genuine aspirations of African peoples for self-governance and unity, the US contributed to:

• Political instability and conflict
• The rise of authoritarian regimes
• The continued exploitation of African resources by foreign powers
• Distorted historical narratives and a lack of accountability for past actions

The "dead hand" of covert action left deep scars on the African continent, hindering its path towards true independence and development and leaving many questions unanswered about the full extent and impact of foreign interference.

Last updated: May 4, 2025