A Brief History of Modern India (2019-2020 Edition) by Spectrum Books

1. European Traders Arrive, Compete, and Establish Dominance

The landing of Vasco da Gama at Calicut in 1498 ... is generally regarded as the beginning of a new era in world history, especially in the relationship between Asia and Europe.

New era begins. The arrival of Europeans, starting with the Portuguese, marked a significant shift in India's interaction with the world. Driven by economic motives like the spice trade and bypassing existing Arab/Ottoman monopolies, European powers sought direct access to Indian markets and goods. This quest for trade gradually evolved into a desire for political control.

Rivalry and ascendancy. The Portuguese, Dutch, English, and French competed fiercely for dominance. Naval superiority, better organisation, and the ability to use force gave the Europeans an edge over Indian powers lacking strong navies. The Anglo-French rivalry, culminating in the Carnatic Wars, proved decisive, establishing the English East India Company as the primary European power in India.

Trade turns to rule. Initially focused on establishing trading posts and factories, the European companies, particularly the English, began interfering in local politics. Exploiting the weaknesses and rivalries among Indian rulers, they gradually acquired territories and administrative control, laying the groundwork for colonial rule.

2. Mughal Decline Creates Power Vacuum, Regional States Emerge

The first half of the eighteenth century saw the decline of the mighty Mughals, who had been the envy of their contemporaries for almost two centuries.

Empire weakens. The decline of the vast Mughal Empire after Aurangzeb's death in 1707 created a significant power vacuum across the subcontinent. Weak successors, wars of succession, and internal administrative and economic problems eroded central authority and stability. External invasions further exposed the empire's vulnerability.

Rise of regional powers. As Mughal power waned, provincial governors and ambitious chieftains asserted their independence, giving rise to numerous regional states.

• Successor states: Hyderabad, Bengal, Awadh
• Independent kingdoms: Mysore, Rajput states, Kerala
• New states: Marathas, Sikhs, Jats, Afghans

Limitations of new states. While some regional states like Mysore and the Marathas became formidable, they often engaged in mutual conflict, preventing the emergence of a unified Indian power. These states generally lacked modern military organisation, financial stability, and a cohesive political vision to effectively counter the rising European influence.

3. British Consolidation Through Wars and Strategic Policies

The entire process of expansion and consolidation of the British power in India took almost a century.

Systematic expansion. The British East India Company, having eliminated European rivals, embarked on a systematic conquest of India. This involved a combination of military victories and shrewd diplomatic and administrative strategies. Key conquests included:

• Bengal (Plassey 1757, Buxar 1764)
• Mysore (Anglo-Mysore Wars)
• Marathas (Anglo-Maratha Wars)
• Sindh (1843)
• Punjab (Anglo-Sikh Wars)

Policies of control. Beyond direct warfare, the British employed policies to extend their influence and absorb Indian states. The 'Ring-Fence' policy aimed at protecting Company territories by defending neighbours. The 'Subsidiary Alliance' (Wellesley) forced states to accept British troops and control over foreign policy. The 'Doctrine of Lapse' (Dalhousie) annexed states where rulers died without a natural heir.

Superiority in conflict. British success was attributed to superior arms, military discipline, regular pay, brilliant leadership, strong financial backing, and a sense of nationalist pride among their ranks. Indian rulers, often divided and lacking these advantages, were gradually overcome.

4. Accumulated Grievances Ignite Widespread Resistance and Revolt

The simmering discontent burst in the form of a violent storm in 1857 which shook the British empire in India to its very foundations.

Roots of discontent. British policies across economic, political, administrative, and socio-religious spheres generated deep resentment among various sections of Indian society. Peasants suffered from high revenue demands and evictions, artisans from deindustrialisation, rulers from annexation policies, and sepoys from discrimination and perceived interference in religion.

Early uprisings. Before the major revolt of 1857, numerous localized resistances occurred, including civil rebellions by deposed rulers/zamindars, tribal revolts against encroachment on lands, peasant movements against exploitation, and sepoy mutinies against service conditions. These showed simmering anger but lacked widespread coordination.

The 1857 Revolt. The greased cartridges incident provided the spark for the sepoy mutiny, which quickly escalated into a widespread rebellion involving civilians, particularly in North India. Leaders like Bahadur Shah Zafar, Nana Saheb, Rani Laxmibai, and Kunwar Singh emerged. However, the revolt failed due to:

• Limited territorial spread and participation
• Lack of unified leadership and organisation
• Poor arms and equipment
• Absence of a clear, unified ideology

5. Socio-Religious Reform Movements Address Internal Issues

The dawn of the nineteenth century witnessed the birth of a new vision—a modern vision among some enlightened sections of the Indian society.

Need for reform. Exposure to modern Western thought and a critical self-assessment in the face of colonial rule highlighted the need to reform prevalent social and religious ills in Indian society. Superstitions, priestly dominance, idolatry, the degraded position of women (sati, child marriage, ban on widow remarriage), and the oppressive caste system were seen as obstacles to progress.

Reformist and revivalist streams. Intellectuals, often from the newly emerging middle class, initiated movements based on rationalism, humanism, and religious universalism.

• Reformist: Brahmo Samaj (Roy, Tagore), Prarthana Samaj, Aligarh Movement sought to purify and modernise religion and society.
• Revivalist: Arya Samaj (Dayananda) looked to the past (Vedas) for inspiration but advocated reform.

Impact on society. These movements campaigned against social evils, advocated for women's education and rights, and challenged caste-based discrimination. While their social base was often limited, they contributed to creating a social climate for modernisation and fostered a sense of self-respect among Indians.

6. Modern Nationalism Takes Root, Leading to Organized Political Action

The rise and growth of Indian nationalism has been traditionally explained in terms of Indian response to the stimulus generated by the British Raj...

Factors fostering unity. Despite British attempts at division, several factors contributed to the growth of a unified national consciousness. Political, administrative, and economic unification under British rule, the spread of Western education and ideas, the role of the press, and the rediscovery of India's past fostered a sense of common identity and shared interests against colonial exploitation.

Emergence of political associations. Educated Indians, particularly the middle class intelligentsia, formed political associations to articulate grievances and demand reforms. Early associations were regional and dominated by the elite (e.g., Landholders' Society). Later ones had a wider base and agenda (e.g., Indian Association of Calcutta).

Birth of the Congress. The Indian National Congress, founded in 1885 by A.O. Hume with the help of Indian leaders, became the first all-India political organisation. Initially dominated by Moderates who believed in constitutional agitation and petitioning the British, the Congress aimed to unite Indians, politically educate them, and demand greater Indian participation in administration.

7. Gandhi Transforms Struggle into Mass Movement with Non-Violence

The Indian struggle against imperialism took a decisive turn towards a broad-based popular struggle with the emergence of Mohandas Karamchand Gandhi on the Indian political scene.

Gandhi's unique method. Returning from South Africa in 1915, where he developed Satyagraha (truth force/non-violent resistance), Gandhi applied his technique in India. His early campaigns (Champaran, Ahmedabad, Kheda) demonstrated the efficacy of Satyagraha in mobilising masses and achieving specific goals.

Post-WWI catalyst. Economic hardships, the repressive Rowlatt Act, the Jallianwala Bagh massacre, and the Khilafat issue created fertile ground for a nationwide mass movement. Gandhi saw the Khilafat issue as an opportunity to unite Hindus and Muslims against the British.

Non-Cooperation and Civil Disobedience. The Khilafat-Non-Cooperation Movement (1920-22) and the Civil Disobedience Movement (1930-34) marked the entry of millions of Indians into the freedom struggle. These movements involved boycotts, non-payment of taxes, and defiance of laws (like the salt law), spreading nationalist sentiment to every corner of the country and politicising diverse sections of society.

8. Communalism Rises, Leading to Demand for Partition

With the rise of nationalism, communalism appeared around the end of the nineteenth century.

Divide and rule. The British actively fostered communalism, particularly after the 1857 Revolt, to counter the rising tide of nationalism. They used concessions, favours, and reservations to cultivate loyalist elements among Muslims and other groups, portraying the Congress as a Hindu organisation.

Evolution of communal ideology. Communalism progressed from the idea of separate secular interests based on religion to the notion that Hindu and Muslim interests were incompatible, culminating in the two-nation theory. Socio-economic factors, historical interpretations, and the side-effects of some socio-religious and militant nationalist movements also contributed to its growth.

Muslim League's role. The Muslim League, founded in 1906 with British encouragement, initially sought separate electorates and safeguards. After performing poorly in the 1937 elections, it adopted extreme communalism and, in 1940, formally demanded Pakistan—a separate state for Muslims.

9. Independence Arrives Amidst Violence and Challenges of Nation-Building

August 15, 1947 started an epoch that ended India’s colonial subjugation and looked forward to a new India—India as an independent country.

Path to partition. Negotiations during and after World War II (August Offer, Cripps, Wavell, Cabinet Mission) failed to resolve the Congress-League deadlock over unity versus partition. The League's call for 'Direct Action' in 1946 led to widespread communal violence, making partition seem inevitable to many, including the Congress leadership.

Mountbatten Plan and Independence Act. The Mountbatten Plan (June 1947) accepted the principle of partition, leading to the creation of India and Pakistan. The Indian Independence Act, 1947 formalised the transfer of power on August 15
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Last updated: May 11, 2025