A Manual for Writers of Research Papers, Theses, and Dissertations

1. Research Is a Systematic Process of Inquiry

No more than five centuries ago, the search for better understanding based on evidence was often regarded as a threat.

Systematic Investigation. Research is more than just collecting information; it's a structured approach to understanding the world. It involves asking meaningful questions, gathering reliable evidence, and developing well-reasoned arguments that contribute to collective knowledge.

Key Research Characteristics:

• Follows a methodical approach
• Seeks to expand understanding
• Challenges existing beliefs
• Relies on evidence and sound reasoning
• Aims to contribute to broader knowledge

Intellectual Courage. Researchers must be willing to challenge established beliefs and pursue truth, even when it may be uncomfortable or contrary to prevailing wisdom. This requires intellectual honesty, critical thinking, and a commitment to rigorous investigation.

2. Crafting a Meaningful Research Question Is Crucial

You can't know where you'll go with a question like How many cats slept in the Alamo the night before the battle? You can't know until you get there.

Question Development Process. A good research question is the foundation of any successful research project. It should be specific, meaningful, and capable of generating substantive insights that extend beyond mere factual reporting.

Characteristics of Strong Research Questions:

• Addresses a gap in existing knowledge
• Sparks genuine curiosity
• Has potential broader implications
• Can be investigated systematically
• Goes beyond surface-level understanding

Intellectual Exploration. The most valuable research questions often emerge from a willingness to be puzzled by ordinary things. Researchers should cultivate the ability to see what's odd in the commonplace and approach topics with genuine curiosity and open-mindedness.

3. Finding and Evaluating Sources Requires Strategy

Researchers use data reported in secondary sources only when they can't find them in primary sources. Then they're cautious about using those secondary sources, because secondhand reports of data have a high error rate.

Source Hierarchy. Not all sources are created equal. Researchers must understand the different types of sources and their relative reliability:

• Primary sources: Original data or direct evidence
• Secondary sources: Analysis of primary sources
• Tertiary sources: Overview or introductory materials

Evaluation Criteria:

• Author's credibility
• Publication date
• Publisher's reputation
• Peer-review status
• Frequency of citation

Critical Selection. Choosing sources is an art that requires careful consideration. Researchers must go beyond simply collecting information and critically assess the reliability, relevance, and potential biases of their sources.

4. Engaging Sources Critically Drives Intellectual Growth

You probably won't be able to engage sources fully until after you've read enough to form some views of your own.

Active Source Engagement. Reading academic sources is not a passive activity. Researchers must actively interact with texts, looking for opportunities to agree, disagree, and extend existing knowledge.

Strategies for Critical Engagement:

• Read sources generously first, then critically
• Look for creative agreements and disagreements
• Ask probing questions about the source's arguments
• Seek to understand alternative perspectives
• Use sources to develop original insights

Intellectual Dialogue. Engaging with sources is like participating in an ongoing scholarly conversation. The goal is not just to understand what others have said, but to contribute meaningfully to the broader discourse.

5. Developing a Strong Argument Requires Careful Planning

Responsible researchers avoid repeating quotations that they have not actually seen in the original.

Argument Construction. A robust research argument is more than a collection of facts. It requires careful planning, logical reasoning, and the ability to anticipate and address potential counterarguments.

Key Argument Components:

• Clear claim
• Supporting reasons
• Reliable evidence
• Acknowledgment of alternative perspectives
• Logical reasoning

Intellectual Rigor. Developing a strong argument involves more than just presenting information. Researchers must construct a coherent narrative that demonstrates critical thinking, systematic reasoning, and a deep understanding of the subject matter.

6. Draft Your Research with Purpose and Flexibility

You probably won't know what you can think until you see it appear in words before you.

Drafting as Discovery. Writing is not just about transcribing existing knowledge, but a process of intellectual discovery. Researchers should approach drafting as an opportunity to develop and refine their thinking.

Drafting Strategies:

• Write regularly, even if imperfectly
• Be open to unexpected insights
• Use writing to clarify thoughts
• Don't get trapped by perfectionism
• Allow your argument to evolve

Iterative Process. Drafting is not a linear process but a dynamic, iterative one. Researchers should be prepared to revise, reorganize, and rethink their arguments as they write.

7. Visual Evidence Can Enhance Your Argument

Readers grasp data more easily if you present them graphically.

Effective Visual Representation. Graphics are not just decorative elements but powerful tools for communicating complex information. Researchers must choose and design graphics carefully to support their arguments.

Graphic Design Principles:

• Choose the most appropriate graphic form
• Keep visuals simple and clear
• Provide context and explanation
• Avoid misleading representations
• Use graphics to highlight key insights

Ethical Data Visualization. Graphics should illuminate, not obscure. Researchers must be careful to represent data honestly and avoid manipulative visual techniques.

8. Revision Is a Critical Part of the Research Process

You write a first draft not for your readers but for yourself, to see whether you can make the case you hoped to.

Systematic Revision. Revision is more than proofreading; it's a comprehensive review of your argument's structure, logic, and clarity. Researchers should approach revision systematically, working from the overall structure to specific details.

Revision Strategies:

• Read your work objectively
• Check argument's logical flow
• Ensure key terms are consistent
• Verify source citations
• Seek external feedback

Continuous Improvement. Revision is an opportunity for intellectual growth. By critically examining their work, researchers can strengthen their arguments and deepen their understanding.

9. Citations Demonstrate Academic Integrity

Your first duty as a researcher is to get the facts right. Your second duty is to tell readers where the facts came from.

Citation Purpose. Citations are more than a technical requirement. They serve multiple crucial functions in academic writing:

• Give credit to original researchers
• Enable verification of sources
• Demonstrate the breadth of research
• Situate work within existing scholarship

Citation Best Practices:

• Be consistent and accurate
• Follow field-specific citation styles
• Include complete bibliographic information
• Cite both direct quotes and paraphrased ideas

Scholarly Conversation. Citations are a way of participating in an ongoing scholarly dialogue, acknowledging the work of others while contributing your own insights.

10. The Spirit of Research Is About Collaborative Knowledge Creation

When we try to explain why we believe our claims are sound and why others should too, we must do more than just state an opinion.

Collaborative Knowledge. Research is fundamentally a collaborative endeavor. Researchers build upon existing knowledge, challenge established ideas, and contribute to a collective understanding of the world.

Research Values:

• Intellectual humility
• Commitment to evidence
• Openness to critique
• Rigorous reasoning
• Pursuit of understanding

Broader Impact. The ultimate goal of research extends beyond individual achievements. It's about advancing human knowledge, challenging existing paradigms, and contributing to our collective understanding of complex issues.

Last updated: April 21, 2025