A Secular Age

1. The Fading Bulwarks: How the World Lost Its Enchantment

Atheism comes close to being inconceivable in a world with these three features. It just seems so obvious that God is there, acting in the cosmos, founding and sustaining societies, acting as a bulwark against evil.

Three pillars of belief. In pre-modern times, belief in God was almost inescapable due to three interconnected factors:

• A divinely ordered cosmos: The natural world was seen as evidence of God's purpose, with events like storms and harvests directly attributed to divine action.
• God in society: Political and social structures were intertwined with religious practices, making God a constant presence in public life.
• An enchanted world: Spirits, demons, and moral forces were believed to be active in the world, with God as the ultimate protector against evil.

Disenchantment's role. The fading of these three features—a disenchanted cosmos, secularized public spaces, and a buffered self—was a crucial step in the rise of modern unbelief. However, it was not enough on its own to create a viable alternative to faith.

Beyond subtraction. The rise of modernity is not simply a story of loss. It also involves the creation of new self-understandings and practices. The key question is not just how God's presence receded, but how alternatives to God as the source of meaning and purpose arose.

2. The Rise of the Buffered Self: A New Kind of Human

For the porous self, the source of its most powerful and important emotions are outside the “mind”; or better put, the very notion that there is a clear boundary, allowing us to define an inner base area, grounded in which we can disengage from the rest, has no sense.

The porous self. In pre-modern times, individuals were seen as "porous," with their thoughts, feelings, and experiences deeply intertwined with the external world. Spirits, demons, and moral forces could directly influence them, blurring the boundaries between self and other.

The buffered self. Modernity saw the rise of the "buffered self," an individual with a clear boundary between their inner world and the external world. Thoughts, feelings, and meanings are seen as residing "within" the mind, making disengagement and self-control possible.

Consequences of the shift. This shift from a porous to a buffered self has had profound consequences:

• It made unbelief more conceivable, as the world was no longer seen as inherently spiritual.
• It allowed for the development of a sense of individuality and autonomy.
• It created a new kind of vulnerability, as the buffered self could feel isolated and cut off from the world.

3. The Great Disembedding: From Collective to Individual

In these earlier days, societies, and not just parishes but whole kingdoms, were seen as standing together towards God, responsible for the “orthodoxy” (right praise) of their members. The deviancy of some would call down punishment on all.

Social embeddedness. Pre-modern societies were characterized by a strong sense of social embeddedness, where individuals were deeply integrated into their communities. Religious life was often a collective activity, and social bonds were intertwined with the sacred.

The rise of individualism. Modernity saw a shift towards individualism, where the individual became the primary unit of social and moral life. This involved a disembedding from traditional social structures and a new emphasis on personal autonomy.

Consequences of disembedding:

• It made it possible to conceive of a society not grounded in common religious beliefs.
• It created a new kind of freedom, but also a new kind of isolation.
• It led to a re-evaluation of the relationship between the individual and the collective.

4. The Modern Moral Order: A World of Mutual Benefit

I would like to claim that the coming of modern secularity in my sense has been coterminous with the rise of a society in which for the first time in history a purely self-sufficient humanism came to be a widely available option.

Beyond transcendence. Modernity saw the rise of a purely self-sufficient humanism, which accepts no final goals beyond human flourishing. This was a radical departure from previous societies, where the highest good was often seen as something beyond human life.

The modern moral order. This new humanism is based on a moral order that emphasizes:

• Individual rights and obligations.
• Mutual benefit and cooperation.
• The importance of reason and self-control.

The rise of exclusive humanism. This new moral order, while often presented as a universal ideal, was in fact a product of specific historical and cultural developments. It was a crucial step in the rise of modern secularity, as it provided an alternative to the traditional religious understanding of the good life.

5. Providential Deism: God as Designer, Not Intervener

The new mechanistic science of the seventeenth century wasn’t seen as necessarily threatening to God. It was to the enchanted universe and magic. It also began to pose a problem for particular providences.

God as designer. The rise of mechanistic science led to a new understanding of God as the designer of a universe governed by unchanging laws. This view, known as Providential Deism, saw God as a creator who set the world in motion but did not intervene in its daily affairs.

The anthropocentric shift. This understanding of God was accompanied by an anthropocentric shift, where the focus of religious life moved from God's glory to human flourishing. God's purposes were now seen as primarily concerned with human well-being.

Consequences of Deism:

• It facilitated the rise of exclusive humanism by removing the need for a transcendent source of meaning.
• It paved the way for a more secular understanding of morality and society.
• It created a new kind of tension between the transcendent and the immanent.

6. The Nova Effect: Unbelief Multiplies and Diversifies

As of the late nineteenth century, indeed, we have fully-formed alternatives which are there before us. And people can be influenced towards one or the other, partly in terms of their views of science—even though, as I shall argue, here too, a crucial role is still played by their moral ontologies.

The widening spectrum. The rise of exclusive humanism created a new space for unbelief, which then diversified into a range of positions. This "nova effect" saw the emergence of various forms of atheism, agnosticism, and other non-religious worldviews.

Beyond simple atheism. The new forms of unbelief were not simply a rejection of God. They also involved a re-evaluation of human nature, morality, and the meaning of life. Some of these new positions were deeply hostile to the Enlightenment, while others sought to build on its legacy.

The role of moral ontologies. The choice between belief and unbelief was not simply a matter of intellectual conviction. It was also deeply influenced by people's moral ontologies, their understanding of what constitutes a good and meaningful life.

7. The Lived Experience of Secular Time: A New Kind of Now

The time of carnival, for instance, is kairotic; that is, the time line encounters kairotic knots, moments whose nature and placing calls for reversal, followed by others demanding rededication, and others still which approach Parousia: Shrove Tuesday, Lent, Easter.

From higher times to secular time. Pre-modern societies understood time as interwoven with higher times, such as eternity and the time of origins. These higher times gave meaning and purpose to ordinary, secular time.

The rise of homogeneous time. Modernity saw the rise of a new understanding of time as homogeneous and empty, a linear flow of moments without any inherent meaning. This new understanding of time was closely linked to the rise of the buffered self and the disenchanted world.

Consequences of secular time:

• It made it possible to conceive of history as a linear progression, rather than a cyclical pattern.
• It created a new sense of urgency and purpose, as people sought to make the most of their limited time on earth.
• It contributed to the sense of alienation and meaninglessness that is often associated with modernity.

8. The Dilemmas of Modernity: The Search for Meaning and Wholeness

We all see our lives, and/or the space wherein we live our lives, as having a certain moral/spiritual shape. Somewhere, in some activity, or condition, lies a fullness, a richness; that is, in that place (activity or condition), life is fuller, richer, deeper, more worth while, more admirable, more what it should be.

The search for fullness. Despite the rise of secularity, the human need for meaning and purpose remains. People continue to seek a sense of fullness, a condition where life feels richer, deeper, and more worthwhile.

The problem of meaninglessness. The modern world, with its emphasis on instrumental reason and secular time, can often feel empty and meaningless. This has led to a widespread sense of malaise, a feeling that something essential is missing.

The search for wholeness. Many people today are seeking a sense of wholeness, a way to integrate their different aspects of life—mind, body, and spirit—into a unified whole. This search for wholeness is often expressed in terms of authenticity, a desire to live in accordance with one's true self.

9. The Immanent Counter-Enlightenment: A Rejection of the Modern Order

Rising fully to this challenge, empowered by this sense of our own greatness in doing so, this condition we aspire to but only rarely, if ever, achieve, can function as its own place of fullness, in the sense of my discussion here.

The limits of reason. The modern emphasis on disengaged reason and instrumental control has led to a backlash, a sense that something essential has been lost. This has given rise to a new kind of unbelief, which rejects the Enlightenment project and seeks meaning in other sources.

The rehabilitation of feeling. The immanent counter-Enlightenment seeks to rehabilitate the importance of feeling, emotion, and intuition, which were often seen as obstacles to reason in the Enlightenment. This has led to a new appreciation for art, beauty, and the power of the imagination.

The search for a new kind of power. The immanent counter-Enlightenment also seeks a new kind of power, one that is not based on control and domination, but on a deeper connection with the world and with others. This has led to a renewed interest in community, tradition, and the power of collective action.

10. The Enduring Power of the Transcendent: A Continuing Human Need

For purposes of understanding the struggle, rivalry, or debate between religion and unbelief in our culture, we have to understand religion as combining these three dimensions of transcendence.

The enduring pull of transcendence. Despite the rise of secularity, the human need for something beyond the immanent world remains. This need is often expressed in terms of a longing for meaning, purpose, and connection with something greater than oneself.

The limits of immanence. The attempt to find meaning and purpose solely within the immanent world can often feel inadequate. The sense of a lack, a void, a longing for something more, is a recurring theme in modern culture.

The continuing relevance of religion. The enduring power of religion lies in its ability to address these fundamental human needs. While traditional forms of religion may be in decline, the search for the transcendent continues, often in new and unexpected ways.

Last updated: January 16, 2025