Agincourt

1. Henry V's Claim to France: A Legacy of Conflict

His just rights and inheritances had been seized from him by violence and withheld for too long: it was his duty to recover them.

Dynastic dispute. Henry V's invasion of France in 1415 was rooted in a centuries-old dynastic dispute, not merely a feudal conflict. The English claim to the French throne originated in 1337 when Edward III, grandson of Philippe IV of France, challenged the legitimacy of the Valois dynasty, transforming a regional dispute over Aquitaine into the Hundred Years War. This claim, though often used as a bargaining chip, was deeply ingrained in English royal ideology, asserting a "just right" to the French crown.

French vulnerability. The ongoing French civil war between the Armagnacs and Burgundians provided Henry V with a critical opportunity. The assassination of Louis d'Orléans by John the Fearless, Duke of Burgundy, in 1407, plunged France into bitter internal strife, creating a power vacuum and weakening the monarchy under the intermittently insane Charles VI. Both factions, desperate for allies, were willing to negotiate with England, inadvertently strengthening Henry's hand and his ambition to reclaim his "inheritances."

Unresolved issues. Despite previous attempts at peace, such as the Treaty of Brétigny in 1360, fundamental disagreements over English sovereignty in Aquitaine and the French succession remained. Henry V, unlike his predecessors, was determined to enforce his claims, viewing diplomacy as a means to extract maximum concessions rather than to avoid war. His demands, including vast territories and the French princess Catherine's hand, were so high they were almost designed to be rejected, setting the stage for inevitable conflict.

2. Henry V: A King Forged in War and Prudence

Henry V was determined that his reign would mark a sea-change in the fortunes of the English monarchy.

A king's apprenticeship. Henry V, though not born to be king, received an unparalleled education in governance and warfare. Fluent in English, French, and Latin, he cultivated a personal library and excelled in music and hunting, which served as practical training for military life. His early military career in Wales, starting before age fourteen, exposed him to the realities of pitched battle, like Shrewsbury where he sustained a severe arrow wound, and the mundane but crucial logistics of campaigning.

Financial acumen. Unlike his profligate father, Henry IV, Henry V learned the vital lesson of financial prudence from his early experiences. He meticulously managed his ducal revenues, cut back on annuities, and insisted on strict audits of royal accounts. This disciplined approach to finance, combined with his ability to foster good relations with Parliament, allowed him to secure unprecedented grants and loans, ensuring his future campaigns would be well-funded.

Justice and order. Henry V prioritized establishing law and order within his kingdom, viewing it as essential for a stable monarchy. He offered general pardons to former rebels, promoted loyal Welshmen, and ruthlessly suppressed aristocratic abuses of power, as seen in Shropshire. His decisive action against the Lollard revolt led by Sir John Oldcastle, transforming heresy into treason, solidified the Church's support, which would prove invaluable for his war efforts.

3. Meticulous Preparation: The Foundation of Henry's Campaign

Throughout the entire period of diplomatic negotiations between England, France and her allies, Henry V had been steadily preparing for war.

Strategic fortifications. Henry V's preparations for war were exhaustive and long-term, focusing on securing his existing holdings and building a formidable invasion force. He invested heavily in reinforcing and repairing key defensive sites:

• Northern border castles against Scotland.
• Calais, undergoing a major rebuilding program, including new roofing and a strengthened garrison.
• Coastal towns like Portsmouth and Southampton, with new towers and artillery.

Arsenal and navy expansion. Recognizing the importance of advanced weaponry and naval power, Henry systematically expanded England's military capabilities. He commissioned vast quantities of bows, arrows, and gunpowder, and invested in cutting-edge artillery, including large cannons. Crucially, he revolutionized the royal fleet, increasing it from six to thirty-four ships by 1417, and impressed hundreds of merchant vessels for transport, ensuring naval supremacy.

Logistics and discipline. Henry's attention to detail extended to every aspect of logistics and army management. He personally oversaw the acquisition of provisions, ensuring fair payment to suppliers to maintain goodwill. His strict ordinances, enforced on pain of death, governed army conduct, prohibiting looting and violence against civilians, and mandating the wearing of St. George's cross for identification. This unprecedented discipline aimed to make his army efficient and minimize local resistance.

4. Harfleur: A Costly but Strategic Victory

For all these reasons, Henry V had identified Harfleur as the target for his invasion.

Key to Normandy. Harfleur, a vital port at the mouth of the Seine, was Henry V's primary objective. Its capture would:

• Control access to France's most important inland waterway, including Rouen and Paris.
• Neutralize a major base for French naval attacks and piracy against England.
• Establish a crucial bridgehead for future English campaigns in Normandy.

Fierce resistance. Despite French disorganization at the initial landing, Harfleur proved a formidable challenge. Its modern fortifications, including thick walls, twenty-four towers, and a water-filled moat, were expertly defended by Raoul de Gaucourt, who bravely led a relief force into the town. The siege lasted five weeks, marked by incessant English bombardment, mining attempts, and desperate French counter-attacks, pushing both sides to their limits.

Dysentery's toll. The prolonged siege took a devastating toll on the English army, primarily due to dysentery, known as "the bloody flux." Prominent figures like Richard Courtenay, Bishop of Norwich, and Michael de la Pole, Earl of Suffolk, succumbed to the disease, alongside thousands of common soldiers. Henry was forced to send home approximately 5,000 sick men, significantly reducing his fighting force, and compelling him to rethink his initial plans for further conquest.

5. The Perilous March to Agincourt: A Test of Endurance

Now, instead of the swift, straight road to their destination, they faced a long and uncertain journey, in the knowledge that their rations could not last out and that battle was becoming increasingly likely.

A calculated risk. Despite heavy losses from dysentery and the council's advice to return by sea, Henry V chose to march his depleted army overland to Calais. This audacious decision, driven by his unwavering belief in divine grace and the justice of his cause, aimed to provoke a decisive battle with the French army that had gathered at Rouen. He intended to follow Edward III's route, hoping to cross the Somme at Blanche Taque, site of a previous English victory.

Somme obstacle. The march quickly encountered its first major setback when the ford at Blanche Taque was found to be barricaded and guarded by a large French force. This forced Henry to abandon his direct route and embark on a desperate, circuitous journey upstream along the Somme, searching for an unguarded crossing. The constant shadowing by French forces, combined with dwindling supplies and the difficult terrain, severely tested English morale.

Tactical adaptation. During this perilous march, Henry's army adapted to new threats. Learning that French cavalry planned to ride down his archers, he ordered every archer to carry a six-foot sharpened stake, a tactic inspired by the Turkish victory at Nicopolis. This innovation, combined with the eventual discovery of unguarded fords at Béthencourt and Voyennes, allowed the English to cross the Somme, outmaneuvering their pursuers and setting the stage for the inevitable confrontation.

6. Agincourt: A Triumph of Discipline and Tactical Genius

For these I have here with me are God’s people, whom He deigns to let me have at this time.

Strategic positioning. On October 25, 1415, the English army, though vastly outnumbered, faced the French on a narrow, recently ploughed field between the woods of Azincourt and Tramecourt. Henry V's scouts had identified this terrain as advantageous, as the heavy rain had turned the clay soil into a quagmire, which would impede the French cavalry and heavily armored men-at-arms. Henry deployed his forces in a single line, with archers on the flanks and between the men-at-arms, their sharpened stakes ready.

French disarray. The French, confident in their numerical superiority, initially hesitated to attack, expecting the English to retreat. This delay allowed Henry to advance his lines, further narrowing the battlefield and forcing a frontal assault. When the French cavalry finally charged, disorganization, the treacherous mud, and a hail of English arrows decimated their ranks, causing them to break and flee, trampling their own advancing infantry.

Brutal efficiency. The battle devolved into a brutal, close-quarters slaughter. English archers, after exhausting their arrows, wielded swords, daggers, and lead mallets, exploiting the French men-at-arms' vulnerability in the mud. The sheer density of the French ranks, combined with the difficult terrain, led to many being suffocated or crushed underfoot. Henry's controversial order to kill prisoners, prompted by a perceived French rally and an attack on his baggage train, ensured his army's survival and cemented the overwhelming victory.

7. The Devastating Toll: French Nobility Decimated

"almost the whole nobility among the soldiery of France" had been killed.

Unprecedented losses. The Battle of Agincourt resulted in a catastrophic loss for the French, particularly among their nobility. Thousands lay dead on the field, including three dukes (Alençon, Bar, Brabant), at least eight counts, and numerous high-ranking royal officers like Constable d'Albret and Marshal Boucicaut (captured). The sheer scale of fatalities among the armigerous class was unprecedented, leaving a gaping void in French leadership and administration.

Family tragedies. The impact of Agincourt resonated deeply through French society, as entire families were decimated. Many noble houses lost multiple sons or fathers and sons, such as the de Rambures family, who lost David and three of his five sons. This created widespread grief and left many women, like Perrette de la Rivière, widowed and burdened with managing estates and raising children amidst the chaos.

Uncertain fates. The systematic plundering of bodies by the English and local peasants made identification difficult, leaving many families in agonizing limbo for months, unsure if their loved ones were dead or captured. This uncertainty compounded the emotional and financial distress, as properties could not be legally settled without confirmation of death, highlighting the brutal realities of medieval warfare.

8. Henry V's Return: A King Vindicated by Divine Will

Indeed, from his quiet demeanour, gentle pace, and sober progress, it might have been gathered that the king, silently pondering the matter in his heart, was rendering thanks and glory to God alone, not to man.

Triumphant homecoming. Henry V's return to England was a carefully orchestrated triumph, designed to solidify his legitimacy and celebrate his victory. After a perilous sea crossing, he made penitential pilgrimages to Canterbury Cathedral and St. Augustine's Abbey, giving thanks to God. His entry into London was a spectacular pageant, with allegorical figures, singing choirs, and cheering crowds, all emphasizing divine favor and his "just right" to the French crown.

Legitimacy affirmed. Agincourt served as a powerful divine judgment, effectively erasing the stain of his father's usurpation. By winning the "trial by battle," Henry V demonstrated that God approved of his claim to France and, by extension, his right to rule England. This newfound legitimacy was crucial for securing continued support from Parliament and the Church, who granted him unprecedented financial aid, including lifetime customs duties.

Humble conqueror. Despite the lavish celebrations, Henry maintained a humble and pious demeanor, refusing to wear his crown or accept personal praise, consistently attributing the victory to God. This public display of humility, combined with his gracious (though firm) treatment of high-ranking French prisoners, reinforced his image as a "most Christian king" and a righteous leader, further enhancing his moral authority.

9. The Enduring Legacy: Agincourt's Impact on Two Nations

It has often been claimed that Agincourt had little or no impact on the course of history: it did not result in lands changing hands or in dramatic political changes, and, longer term, the English obsession with their rights in France proved to be a costly and ultimately futile distraction from more important issues.

Catalyst for conquest. While Agincourt didn't immediately change territorial control, it was a pivotal moment that laid the groundwork for Henry V's subsequent conquest of Normandy (1417-1419). The decimation of French leadership at the battle severely weakened their ability to resist, creating a power vacuum that Henry skillfully exploited. This military success, combined with the assassination of John the Fearless, ultimately led to the Treaty of Troyes, where Henry was recognized as heir to the French throne.

Averted English disaster. Had Henry lost at Agincourt, the consequences for England would have been catastrophic. The loss of the king, his brother, and much of the English nobility would have plunged the country into political chaos, potentially reigniting civil strife and leaving it vulnerable to Scottish and Welsh incursions. Agincourt, therefore, was not just a victory, but a survival that prevented a national disaster and allowed the Lancastrian dynasty to flourish, albeit temporarily.

Cultural and political reverberations. The battle left an indelible mark on the national consciousness of both England and France. In England, it became a source of immense national pride, celebrated in carols and ballads, and serving as a rallying cry for future military endeavors. In France, "la malheureuse journée" became a symbol of national humiliation and internal division, fueling a desire for revenge and ultimately contributing to the eventual expulsion of the English from French soil.

Last updated: August 8, 2025