Answers for Aristotle

1. Sci-Phi: Integrating Science and Philosophy for a Meaningful Life

Since science is uniquely well suited to deal with factual knowledge and philosophy deals with (among other things) values, sci-phi seems like a promising way to approach the perennial questions concerning how we construct the meaning of our existence.

Combining knowledge. Sci-Phi, short for science and philosophy, is an approach to understanding the world and our lives by integrating factual knowledge from science with the values explored in philosophy. This combination provides a more comprehensive framework for addressing life's big questions, such as how to live a meaningful life.

Facts and values. Science provides the facts, while philosophy helps us evaluate those facts and determine their relevance to our values. For example, science can tell us about the health consequences of being overweight, but philosophy helps us determine the aesthetic and moral judgments we make about weight.

Aristotle's influence. Aristotle was among the first to approach big questions in both a philosophical and a scientific manner. He believed that life is a project, and the most important thing for us to do is to ask ourselves how we are to pursue it.

2. Moral Decisions: Balancing Reason and Emotion

It is an old maxim of mine that when you have excluded the impossible, whatever remains, however improbable, must be the truth.

Trolley dilemmas. Ethical dilemmas, such as the trolley problem, highlight the tension between utilitarian (consequentialist) and deontological (rule-based) moral reasoning. Most people favor saving five lives at the expense of one in the lever version but recoil at directly sacrificing one to save five in the bridge version.

Dual-process theory. Cognitive scientists propose a dual-process theory of moral judgment, where cognitive processes drive utilitarian ethics and emotional responses enable deontological ethics. Brain imaging studies show different brain areas activate when considering personal versus impersonal ethical problems.

Evolutionary influences. Social psychologist Jonathan Haidt suggests that many moral decisions arise from evolutionarily ingrained instincts or emotions, rationalized as moral judgments. However, philosopher William Fitzpatrick argues that humans often make decisions that contradict evolutionary instincts, indicating a capacity for genuine moral reasoning.

3. The Neurobiology of Ethics: Brains, Genes, and Moral Judgment

As for morality, well, that’s all tied up with the question of consciousness.

Neuroethics. Neuroethics explores the neural basis of moral reasoning, examining how brain structure and function influence ethical decisions. Studies of individuals with brain damage and psychopaths provide insights into the neural circuits involved in morality.

The warrior gene. The MAO-A gene variant, or "warrior gene," is associated with violent behavior. However, carrying this gene does not guarantee violent behavior, highlighting the importance of environmental factors.

Dual-process theory revisited. Joshua Greene's dual-process theory suggests that cognitive processes enable utilitarian judgment, while emotional responses enable deontological judgment. This theory is supported by studies showing that interfering with cognitive or emotional processes affects moral decisions.

4. The Evolution of Morality: From Selfish Genes to Altruistic Behavior

Never let your sense of morals get in the way of doing what’s right.

Challenging Hobbes. Thomas Hobbes argued that morality is a latecomer in human history, imposed by the power of the state. However, observations of ethical behavior in nonhuman primates challenge this view.

Building blocks of morality. Three building blocks of a moral sense are kin selection, reciprocal altruism, and indirect reciprocity. Kin selection involves sacrificing for relatives, reciprocal altruism involves returning favors, and indirect reciprocity involves building a reputation for helpfulness.

Expanding the circle. Philosopher Peter Singer argues that we can expand our moral concern to include all of humanity and even other species. This expansion is achieved through reason and reflection, allowing us to overcome our biologically based moral instincts.

5. Crafting Your Moral Compass: A Personalized Ethical Framework

Those are my principles, and if you don’t like them . . . well, I have others.

Metaethics. Metaethics examines the rational justifications for adopting any moral system. It addresses the question of how to avoid sliding into "anything goes" moral relativism without relying on absolute sources of morality.

Ethical systems. The three major ethical systems are deontology (rule-based ethics), consequentialism (outcome-based ethics), and virtue ethics (character-based ethics). Deontology emphasizes following rules, consequentialism emphasizes maximizing happiness, and virtue ethics emphasizes developing virtuous character traits.

Creating a custom framework. A personalized ethical framework can be created by combining insights from deontology, consequentialism, and virtue ethics. This approach allows for flexibility and adaptability while maintaining a coherent moral compass.

6. The Rationalizing Animal: Cognitive Biases and Self-Deception

Errors of opinion may be tolerated where reason is left free to combat it.

Priming and framing. Our brains are easily manipulated by priming and framing effects, leading us to make irrational decisions. Priming involves influencing our judgments by exposing us to seemingly unrelated stimuli, while framing involves presenting the same information in different ways to elicit different responses.

Delusions. Delusions, such as Cotard's syndrome and Capgras syndrome, reveal how the brain rationalizes inexplicable sensory data. These conditions highlight the brain's tendency to create narratives to maintain a sense of control, even if those narratives are false.

Split-brain patients. Studies of split-brain patients show that the left hemisphere, responsible for language, often confabulates explanations for actions prompted by the right hemisphere. This demonstrates the brain's tendency to rationalize behavior, even when it doesn't understand the underlying reasons.

7. Intuition and Reason: A Dynamic Partnership for Expertise

Intuition will tell the thinking mind where to look next.

Dual modes of thinking. Cognitive science recognizes two modes of thinking: intuition and rational cognition. Intuition is associative, effortless, and fast, while rational thinking is analytical, effortful, and slow.

Domain-specific intuition. Intuition is a domain-specific ability that improves with practice. Experts develop strong intuitions in their fields by recognizing recurring patterns and generating heuristic solutions.

The role of emotions. Intuitions are closely linked to emotions, with the amygdala playing a key role. Trusting one's intuitions can increase self-esteem, while distrusting them can decrease it.

8. Science's Limits: Embracing Provisional Knowledge and Humility

There is something fascinating about science. One gets such wholesale returns of conjecture out of such a trifling investment of fact.

Deduction and induction. Scientific reasoning relies on deduction and induction. Deduction is truth-preserving but requires true premises, while induction is not truth-preserving but allows us to infer new knowledge from observations.

The problem of induction. David Hume pointed out that induction lacks a rigorous logical foundation. Karl Popper attempted to solve this problem with falsification, but his approach does not fully reflect the practice of science.

Perspectivism. Scientific knowledge is both objective and subjective, resulting from a human perspective interacting with the world. This perspective is tentative and may be superseded by better methods and more sophisticated thinking.

9. The Power of Will: Navigating Temptation and Self-Control

I generally avoid temptation unless I can’t resist it.

Limited willpower. Willpower is a limited resource that can be depleted by resisting temptations. Avoiding situations that require willpower and prioritizing tasks that matter can help conserve this resource.

Strengthening willpower. Willpower can be strengthened through practice, similar to exercising a muscle. Small acts of self-control, regular exercise, and meditation can improve willpower over time.

The role of blood sugar. Blood sugar levels influence willpower. Maintaining stable blood sugar levels through balanced meals can help improve self-control.

10. The Zombie Inside: Unconscious Processes and Conscious Awareness

Reason is, and ought only to be the slave of passions, and can never pretend to any other office than to serve and obey them.

The zombie within. Our brains perform many complex calculations and decisions unconsciously, as if a "zombie" is in control. This is evident in tasks like hitting a baseball or making quick decisions based on probabilistic cues.

The role of consciousness. Consciousness may not initiate decisions but can monitor and veto unconscious actions. This allows us to correct errors and improve our decisions.

Hume's perspective. David Hume argued that reason is the slave of passions, meaning that our actions are driven by emotions, not logic. This view is supported by neurobiological evidence showing that emotions play a key role in moral judgment.

11. The Chemistry of Love: Hormones, Brains, and Human Connection

You can’t blame gravity for falling in love.

Three phases of love. Helen Fisher proposes three phases of love: infatuation, romantic love, and attachment. Each phase is characterized by specific hormonal profiles and neural correlates.

Hormonal influences. Infatuation is driven by testosterone, romantic love by dopamine and low serotonin, and attachment by oxytocin and vasopressin. These hormones influence brain activity and behavior, shaping our experiences of love.

Evolutionary origins. The chemistry of love has evolutionary roots, promoting pair-bonding and parental care. However, understanding the biological basis of love does not diminish its complexity or significance.

12. The Value of Friendship: A Cornerstone of a Flourishing Life

Of all the things which wisdom provides to make life entirely happy, much the greatest is the possession of friendship.

Friendship and happiness. Friendship is a fundamental ingredient of human happiness, influencing our well-being above and beyond personality traits. The quality of friendships, particularly companionship and self-validation, is more important than the quantity.

Social contagion. Research suggests that behavioral traits, including obesity, smoking, and happiness, can spread through social networks. This highlights the importance of choosing friends who promote positive behaviors.

Aristotle's view. Aristotle believed that friends hold a mirror up to each other, helping them improve themselves as persons. He distinguished between friendships of pleasure, utility, and virtue, with the latter being the highest form of friendship.

13. Political Animals: Biology, Ideology, and the Search for Justice

Politics is the art of looking for trouble, finding it, misdiagnosing it, and then misapplying the wrong remedies.

Biological basis of political attitudes. Physiological traits, such as skin conductance and startle responses, are linked to political attitudes. Conservatives tend to have stronger responses to threats, while liberals tend to have enlarged anterior cingulate cortices.

Framing and political awareness. Framing, or presenting information in a particular way, can influence political opinions. However, the effectiveness of framing depends on an individual's level of political awareness and the strength of their political values.

Cognitive dissonance. People often hold onto demonstrably false political beliefs, deploying cognitive strategies to avoid facing the truth. These strategies include attitude bolstering, disputing rationality, and inferred justification.

14. The Irrelevance of Gods: Euthyphro's Dilemma and Human Morality

And what is piety, and what is impiety?

Euthyphro's dilemma. Euthyphro's dilemma challenges the notion that morality depends on God. It asks whether something is moral because God commands it or whether God commands it because it is moral.

The problem with divine command theory. If something is moral because God commands it, then morality is arbitrary. If God commands something because it is moral, then morality is independent of God.

Human morality. The Euthyphro dilemma suggests that morality is a human problem, requiring us to develop ethical frameworks based on reason and evidence. This approach allows us to create a meaningful and moral existence without relying on the supernatural.

Last updated: March 1, 2025