Beyond Good and Evil and The Genealogy of Morals

1. Philosophical Truths Often Mask Personal Confessions

Gradually it has occurred to me what every great philosophy has been so far: namely the personal confession of its author and a kind of involuntary and unnoticed memoires; likewise that the moral (or immoral) intentions in every philosophy constitute the actual living seed from which the entire plant has grown every time.

Philosophical systems as self-revelation. Nietzsche argues that philosophical systems are not objective truths but rather personal confessions and memoirs of their creators. A philosopher's moral intentions are the "living seed" from which their entire philosophical plant grows. To understand a philosopher's metaphysical claims, one must first ask, "At what morality is it (or is he-) aimed?"

Drives behind philosophy. Nietzsche rejects the notion that a "drive for knowledge" is the primary motivator behind philosophy. Instead, he suggests that other drives, such as the will to power, use knowledge as a tool. By examining the basic human drives, one can uncover the hidden intentions and motivations behind philosophical systems.

Philosophers vs. scholars. Nietzsche distinguishes between philosophers and scholars, noting that scholars may have a genuine "knowledge-drive," but their personal interests often lie elsewhere. In contrast, a philosopher's morality provides decisive testimony to who they are and the order of rank among their innermost drives.

2. Morality is a Tool of Power, Not an End in Itself

For every drive is bent on ruling: and as such it attempts to philosophize.

Morality as a power play. Nietzsche views morality not as an objective standard of right and wrong but as a tool used by different drives and groups to assert their dominance. Each drive seeks to present itself as the ultimate purpose of existence and the rightful master of all other drives. This perspective challenges the traditional view of morality as a disinterested pursuit of the good.

The will to power. Nietzsche posits that the will to power is the fundamental drive underlying all human behavior, including morality. Every drive is bent on ruling, and as such, it attempts to philosophize and impose its values on others. This perspective challenges the traditional view of morality as a disinterested pursuit of the good.

Stoicism as self-tyranny. Nietzsche critiques the Stoic imperative to "live according to nature," arguing that it is a fraud of words. Living, he contends, is precisely wanting to be different than nature, which is indifferent, unjust, and limited. The Stoics, in reality, seek to prescribe their morality onto nature, demanding that it conform to their own image of existence.

3. The Value of Truth is a Dangerous and Unsettled Question

Suppose we want truth: why not rather untruth? And uncertainty? Even ignorance?

Questioning the will to truth. Nietzsche challenges the traditional philosophical assumption that truth is inherently valuable. He asks why we should prioritize truth over untruth, uncertainty, or even ignorance. This questioning of the value of truth is a central theme in Nietzsche's philosophy.

Truth as a condition of life. Nietzsche suggests that untruth may be a condition of life, arguing that the falsest judgments are often the most indispensable to us. Without logical fictions and constant falsification of the world, mankind could not live. This perspective challenges the accustomed value-emotions and places Nietzsche's philosophy beyond good and evil.

Appearance vs. truth. Nietzsche questions the essential opposition between "true" and "false," suggesting that it may suffice to assume stages of apparentness and different shades of appearance. He even entertains the possibility that the world that concerns us is a fiction, challenging the traditional philosophical faith in grammar and the subject.

4. Master and Slave Moralities Define Human History

In truth things are quite different: in gleefully alleging to read the canon of your law out of nature, you really want the reverse, you strange actors and self-deceivers!

Two fundamental moralities. Nietzsche identifies two basic types of morality: master morality and slave morality. Master morality arises from a dominating type that affirms its own values and sees itself as "good" in contrast to the "bad" qualities of the dominated. Slave morality, on the other hand, originates from the oppressed and emphasizes values such as compassion, humility, and self-denial.

Revaluation of values. The slave revolt in morality begins when ressentiment becomes creative and gives birth to values. Slave morality says No to an "outside," to a "different," to a "non-self," and this No is its creative deed. This revaluation of values is a key feature of slave morality.

The noble vs. the resentful. The noble human being feels itself to be value-determining and does not need approval. In contrast, the human being of ressentiment is neither upright nor naive, and his soul squints. This fundamental difference in perspective shapes their respective moral valuations.

5. The Ascetic Ideal: A Life-Denying Force Masquerading as Virtue

To sacrifice God for nothingness-this paradoxical mystery of the ultimate cruelty was reserved for the generation that is now emerging: all of us already know something of this.

Asceticism as a will to nothingness. Nietzsche identifies the ascetic ideal as a will to nothingness, a counterwill against life that rejects the most fundamental presuppositions of existence. This ideal, which is characterized by a hatred of the human, the animal, and the material, seeks to negate the senses, reason, and the will itself.

The ascetic priest. The ascetic priest is the direction-changer of ressentiment, exploiting the bad instincts of all suffering people for the purpose of self-discipline and self-overcoming. This priest, who is often sick himself, uses religion to spread sunshine on eternally tormented people and make them bearable in their own sight.

The ladder of religious cruelty. Nietzsche outlines a great ladder of religious cruelty, beginning with the sacrifice of human beings to their god, then the sacrifice of the strongest instincts, and finally the sacrifice of God himself for nothingness. This paradoxical mystery of ultimate cruelty is reserved for the generation that is now emerging.

6. Bad Conscience: Humanity's Cruelest Invention

To translate humankind back into nature; to master the many vain and gushing interpretations and connotations that have so far been scribbled and painted over that eternal basic text homo natura.

Internalization of instincts. Bad conscience arises from the internalization of instincts that are no longer allowed to be expressed outwardly. This process, which is driven by the state's need to tame and control its citizens, turns the human being against itself.

Guilt before God. The feeling of guilt before God becomes an instrument of torture, with the human being imagining himself punished without the possibility of atonement. This leads to a paradoxical mystery of the ultimate cruelty, in which God sacrifices himself for the guilt of humanity.

The innocence of becoming. Nietzsche rejects the notion of "unfree will," which he sees as an abuse of cause and effect. He argues that cause and effect should only be used as pure concepts, not as reified entities. In the "in-itself," there is nothing of "causal connections," "necessity," or "psychological unfreedom."

7. Beyond Good and Evil: A Call for New Values and a New Nobility

The selecting, cultivating influence which can be wielded with the help of religions, which is always just as much a destroying as it is a creative and shaping influence, is manifold and different depending on the kind of people who are placed under its sway and protection.

The philosopher as cultivator. Nietzsche envisions the philosopher as someone who uses religion for works of cultivation and education, just as he uses the respective political and economic conditions. This philosopher will wield a selecting, cultivating influence, which is always just as much a destroying as it is a creative and shaping influence.

The free spirit. The philosophers of the future will be free, very free spirits, but they will not be merely free spirits. They will be something more, higher, greater, and fundamentally different. These philosophers will be at home in many countries of the spirit, forever slipping away from the musty, cozy corners into which they seem to have been banished.

The new nobility. Nietzsche calls for a new species of philosophers who are tempters, those who question all values and challenge the status quo. These philosophers will be free spirits who are not dogmatists, who do not seek to impose their truths on others, and who are willing to embrace the dangerous Perhaps.

Last updated: April 24, 2025