Bunk

1. The Hoax: A History of Deception and Desire

Alas! Victor, when falsehood can look so like the truth, who can assure themselves of certain happiness?

Defining the Hoax. The modern hoax, unlike its predecessors, often traffics in pain and horror, separating tragedy from the possibility of a happy ending. It thrives on contradictions, particularly in the American context, where the desire to be hoaxed is as strong as the desire to be seen as intelligent enough to avoid it.

Humbug vs. Hoax. P.T. Barnum distinguished between humbug, which is a form of entertainment that acknowledges its own artifice, and hoaxes, which are intended to deceive. Humbug is about the show, the spectacle, and the audience's willingness to be fooled, while a hoax is a more insidious form of fraud.

American Identity. The hoax has a unique relationship with American identity, often used to establish bona fides or to question the very notion of truth. The rise of the penny press in the 19th century, much like the internet today, created a fertile ground for hoaxes to flourish, fueled by sensationalism and a public appetite for the extraordinary.

2. Race as a Construct: The Hoax's Favorite Tool

Every crowd has a silver lining.

Exploiting Racial Hierarchies. Race has been a recurring theme in hoaxes, often used to reinforce existing social hierarchies and prejudices. From the Moon Hoax, which depicted bat-winged humanoids on the moon with racialized features, to the exhibition of "What Is It?" which presented a black man as a missing link in evolution, hoaxes have historically relied on and perpetuated racist stereotypes.

Blackface and Appropriation. The rise of blackface minstrelsy coincided with the consolidation of American pop culture and the exploitation of African American culture. Blackface, like the exhibition of Joice Heth, served as a way for white audiences to both embrace and distance themselves from the "other," reinforcing their own sense of superiority.

The Circassian Beauty. The "Circassian Beauty" craze, in which white women were exhibited as exotic ideals of beauty, played into anxieties about racial purity and the threat of foreignness. These examples demonstrate how hoaxes have been used to both define and police racial boundaries in America.

3. Spiritualism and the Search for Proof

Every crowd has a silver lining.

Spiritualism's Rise. The Spiritualism movement, which began in the mid-19th century, provided a new outlet for those seeking connection with the deceased, particularly during times of war and loss. Spirit photography, which claimed to capture images of ghosts, became a popular way to provide "scientific proof" of the afterlife.

The Fox Sisters and Spirit Photography. The Fox sisters, who claimed to communicate with spirits through rappings, sparked the Spiritualism movement. William Mumler's spirit photography, which purported to capture images of the dead, gained popularity during the Civil War, preying on the grief of those who had lost loved ones.

The Dark Side of Belief. While Spiritualism offered comfort and empowerment to many, it also became a breeding ground for fraud and exploitation. Barnum, a master of humbug, exposed spirit photographers and mediums as charlatans, highlighting the dangers of seeking scientific proof for faith.

4. The Modern Hoax: Pain, Performance, and Profit

Every crowd has a silver lining.

From Honor to Horror. The modern hoax has shifted from humor and wonder to pain and horror, often exploiting personal tragedies for profit. The stories of Joice Heth, "What Is It?", and the Circassian Beauty demonstrate how the exploitation of black bodies and the performance of racial stereotypes became central to American entertainment.

The Confession as Performance. The confession has become an essential extension of the hoax, with hoaxers often seeking to control the narrative and garner sympathy through carefully crafted apologies. The cases of James Frey, Margaret B. Jones, and JT LeRoy illustrate how the performance of remorse can be as calculated and manipulative as the original deception.

The Role of the Media. The media plays a crucial role in both perpetuating and exposing hoaxes. The penny press of the 19th century and the internet of today have provided platforms for hoaxes to spread rapidly, while also enabling investigative journalists to uncover the truth.

5. The Allure of the "Other": Exoticism and the Hoax

Every crowd has a silver lining.

Exoticism and the Hoax. The hoax often relies on exoticism, exploiting the public's fascination with the "other" and reinforcing existing stereotypes. The Circassian Beauty, "What Is It?", and the Moon Hoax all demonstrate how hoaxes have been used to exoticize and dehumanize people of color.

The "Noble Savage" Trope. The "noble savage" trope, which romanticizes indigenous cultures as pure and uncorrupted by civilization, has been a recurring theme in hoaxes. Grey Owl, who pretended to be a Native American conservationist, and Marlo Morgan, who claimed to have lived with a lost tribe in Australia, both capitalized on this trope to gain fame and fortune.

The Dangers of Exoticism. Exoticism can lead to the erasure of individual identities and the perpetuation of harmful stereotypes. By reducing complex cultures to simplistic tropes, hoaxes can reinforce existing power imbalances and contribute to the dehumanization of marginalized groups.

6. The Confession as an Extension of the Hoax

Every crowd has a silver lining.

The Confession as Performance. The confession has become an essential extension of the hoax, with hoaxers often seeking to control the narrative and garner sympathy through carefully crafted apologies. The cases of James Frey, Margaret B. Jones, and JT LeRoy illustrate how the performance of remorse can be as calculated and manipulative as the original deception.

The Five Stages of Grift:

• Denial
• Redirection
• Admission of a lesser crime
• Halfhearted confession
• Publication of a new book

The Power of Confession. The confession, whether genuine or feigned, has a powerful hold on the public imagination. It offers a sense of closure and allows the audience to feel as if justice has been served. However, the confession can also be a way for the hoaxer to reassert control over the narrative and to profit from their own deception.

7. The Power of the Image: Photography, Film, and the Hoax

Every crowd has a silver lining.

Photography and Believability. Photography has played a crucial role in the history of the hoax, lending an air of authenticity to fabricated stories. Spirit photography, the Cottingley fairy photographs, and the images of "What Is It?" all demonstrate how the camera can be used to deceive and manipulate.

Film and Reenactment. Film has become a powerful tool for hoaxers to reenact their deceptions and to further blur the lines between reality and fiction. Joan Lowell's "Adventure Girl" and the film adaptations of James Frey's and JT LeRoy's books demonstrate how film can be used to perpetuate hoaxes and to create a sense of authenticity.

The Shifting Grotesque. The grotesque, once a figure of wonder and speculation, has become increasingly medicalized and pathologized. The images of "What Is It?" and the Circassian Beauty reflect the ways in which the racial grotesque has been used to reinforce existing social hierarchies and to dehumanize marginalized groups.

8. The Journalist and the Liar: Truth in the Age of Euphemism

Every crowd has a silver lining.

The Journalist's Dilemma. The journalist, tasked with uncovering the truth, is often caught in a web of deception and manipulation. The cases of Stephen Glass, Jayson Blair, and Janet Cooke demonstrate the challenges of maintaining journalistic integrity in an age of sensationalism and competition.

The Age of Euphemism. The rise of euphemism, with its emphasis on political correctness and sanitized language, has created a climate in which it is increasingly difficult to speak honestly about difficult issues. This has made it easier for hoaxes to flourish, as they can often exploit the gaps between what is said and what is meant.

The Power of the Press. Despite the challenges, the press remains a vital force for uncovering the truth and holding power accountable. The exposure of the Moon Hoax, the Lincoln Letters, and the various journalistic fabrications discussed in this book demonstrate the importance of a free and independent press.

9. Plagiarism: Stealing Words, Erasing Voices

Every crowd has a silver lining.

Plagiarism as a Form of Violence. Plagiarism is not simply a matter of stealing words; it is an act of violence that erases the voices and experiences of others. The cases of Kaavya Viswanathan, Adam Wheeler, and Christian Ward demonstrate how plagiarism can be used to silence marginalized voices and to perpetuate existing power imbalances.

The Allure of the "Authentic" Voice. Plagiarism often involves the appropriation of marginalized voices, with white writers stealing from black, Native American, and other underrepresented groups. This reflects a desire to claim authenticity and to gain access to experiences that are not one's own.

The Consequences of Plagiarism. Plagiarism can have devastating consequences for both the plagiarist and the victim. It can lead to the loss of careers, reputations, and trust. It can also undermine the integrity of the literary and academic worlds.

10. The Haunting of History: Forgery and the Past

Every crowd has a silver lining.

Forgery and the Manipulation of History. Forgery is not simply a matter of creating fake objects; it is an attempt to rewrite history and to control the narrative of the past. The cases of Thomas Wise, Han van Meegeren, and the Hitler Diaries demonstrate how forgery can be used to distort historical events and to promote particular ideologies.

The Allure of the Past. Forgery often plays on our nostalgia for the past, creating idealized versions of historical figures and events. The Lincoln Letters, the Cottingley fairy photographs, and the various fake memoirs discussed in this book all demonstrate how the past can be manipulated to serve present-day desires.

The Dangers of Historical Revisionism. Forgery can have dangerous consequences, as it can be used to deny historical atrocities and to promote hate and intolerance. The Holocaust hoaxes discussed in this book demonstrate the importance of preserving historical accuracy and of resisting attempts to rewrite the past.

11. The Hoax as a Reflection of American Identity

Every crowd has a silver lining.

The American Character. The hoax is a uniquely American phenomenon, reflecting the country's complex relationship with truth, authenticity, and identity. From P.T. Barnum's humbug to the modern-day fabrications of James Frey and JT LeRoy, hoaxes have been used to both celebrate and critique the American character.

The Power of Belief. The success of a hoax depends on the audience's willingness to believe. Hoaxes often exploit our desire for easy answers, for simple solutions to complex problems, and for confirmation of our existing beliefs.

The Need for Skepticism. In an age of misinformation and disinformation, it is more important than ever to cultivate a healthy skepticism and to question the narratives that are presented to us. The history of the hoax serves as a reminder that we must always be vigilant in our search for the truth.

Last updated: March 31, 2025