Four Lost Cities

1. Cities are shaped by the interplay of politics and environmental crises.

City leaders pour resources into beautiful spectacles for political reasons, rather than providing good roads, functioning sewers, relatively safe marketplaces, and other basic amenities of urban life.

Political spectacles over practical needs. Throughout history, city leaders often prioritize visually impressive projects for political gain, neglecting essential infrastructure like roads and sanitation. This can lead to vulnerabilities during environmental crises, as seen in Angkor's faulty water storage system.

Vicious cycle of instability. Environmental disasters exacerbate political tensions, making it even harder to repair damaged infrastructure and address basic needs. This creates a cycle of decline that can ultimately lead to urban abandonment.

Resilience requires balance. Cities that prioritize both aesthetic appeal and practical functionality are more likely to withstand environmental challenges and maintain social stability. Neglecting either aspect can lead to long-term consequences.

2. Urban abandonment is a deliberate act driven by unsustainable conditions.

These cities didn’t disappear like Atlantis, sliding abruptly below the water into the realm of legend. They didn’t go missing. People deliberately abandoned them, for good reasons.

Abandonment as a choice. Cities are not simply "lost" due to mysterious circumstances. People make conscious decisions to leave when conditions become unsustainable, often due to a combination of political instability and environmental crises.

Prolonged periods of hardship. The abandonment of cities like Çatalhöyük, Pompeii, Angkor, and Cahokia was not a sudden event, but rather the culmination of prolonged periods of hardship, including drought, flooding, and social unrest.

Seeking a better future. Urbanites uproot their lives and turn their backs on their homes, often at great personal cost, in search of a more stable and promising future elsewhere. This decision reflects a loss of faith in the city's ability to provide for its inhabitants.

3. Early urban life involved a complex negotiation between domestication and the wild.

Domesticity doesn’t mean shutting out nature. Instead, it’s more a filtering process, allowing certain life-forms inside while keeping others at bay.

Domestication's impact. The transition to settled life and agriculture led to the domestication of plants, animals, and even humans, resulting in physical and cultural changes. This process also created a distinct boundary between the domestic sphere and the wild.

Symbolic significance of the wild. Despite embracing domestication, early urban societies like Çatalhöyük retained a fascination with the wild, incorporating animal imagery into their art and rituals. This may have been a way to invoke power, honor ancestors, or acknowledge the fragility of human settlements.

Privacy and the public sphere. The rise of cities also led to the development of the concept of privacy, as people sought to create boundaries between their personal lives and the public sphere. This created new social dynamics and a need for symbolic markers of identity.

4. Ancient cities reveal evolving social structures, not just technological advancements.

It is in the distributed processes of daily life that small acts come to have large consequences.

Beyond technological determinism. The development of cities was not solely driven by technological advancements like agriculture or irrigation. Social and cultural factors, such as the organization of labor, the emergence of hierarchy, and the formation of communities, played a crucial role.

The power of small acts. Urbanism emerged from an ever-expanding sprawl of houses, where humans developed the crafts, tools, and symbolism that still make cities so appealing despite their many drawbacks.

Material entanglement. As people lived in one place for longer, their identities became increasingly bound up in the physical objects around them, from houses and tools to ritual objects and ancestral remains. This "material entanglement" shaped their sense of self and community.

5. Pompeii's streets showcase a vibrant, cosmopolitan public life.

Pompeii may have been lost, but Roman urbanism continued to thrive.

The street as a social hub. Unlike the house-centered life of Çatalhöyük, Pompeii's streets were the center of public life, where people worked, socialized, and engaged in commerce. This created a dynamic and cosmopolitan culture.

Cosmopolitan culture. Pompeii was a melting pot of cultures, with influences from North Africa, Egypt, and other parts of the Roman Empire. This diversity is reflected in the city's art, architecture, and religious practices.

The power of public spaces. Pompeii's streets, bathhouses, and tabernas provided spaces for people of all classes and backgrounds to interact, fostering a sense of shared identity and civic engagement.

6. Roman society was undergoing a social revolution, challenging traditional hierarchies.

The fate of Pompeii is evidence that the demise of a city isn’t the same thing as the collapse of the culture that sustained it.

Social mobility and changing roles. The century leading up to Pompeii's demise was a time of great change, with women, slaves, and immigrants gaining rights and penetrating the inner sanctums of political power. This challenged traditional social hierarchies and created new opportunities for advancement.

The influence of women. Women like Julia Felix and Eumachia played significant roles in Pompeii's economy and public life, owning businesses, funding public works, and challenging traditional gender roles.

The rise of the freedmen. Former slaves, known as freedmen, gained wealth and influence in Pompeii, often becoming successful merchants and entrepreneurs. This created a more diverse and dynamic society.

7. Angkor's success stemmed from mastering water management in a challenging environment.

It is in the distributed processes of daily life that small acts come to have large consequences.

Climate extremes. Angkor faced a challenging climate with alternating periods of intense rainfall and drought. To thrive, the Khmer developed sophisticated water management systems, including reservoirs, canals, and irrigation techniques.

The barays as both practical and symbolic. The barays, or reservoirs, served both practical and symbolic purposes, providing water for agriculture and drinking, while also reflecting the Khmer cosmology and the king's power.

The importance of labor. The construction and maintenance of Angkor's water infrastructure required a vast labor force, drawn from all over the empire. This labor was organized through a complex system of debt and patronage.

8. Khmer society was built on a complex system of labor and patronage.

It is in the distributed processes of daily life that small acts come to have large consequences.

Debt slavery and social hierarchy. Khmer society was structured around a system of debt slavery, where people owed labor to the king and other elites in exchange for land, protection, and other benefits. This system created a rigid social hierarchy.

The role of patronage. The king and other powerful figures maintained their power through a system of patronage, distributing land, resources, and ceremonial positions to their allies and supporters.

The fragility of the system. The Khmer system of labor and patronage was inherently unstable, leading to conflicts over succession, local uprisings, and recurring cycles of chaos.

9. Cahokia's plazas fostered a unique public sphere centered on community and spirituality.

Even a figurine with abundant detail that allows us today to say “this is an image of a woman” might have been identified originally as an image of a specific person, living or dead, or as the personification of an abstract concept—like the representation of Liberty as a woman—or even as a representation of a category of people, such as elders or youths, unified by some feature we overlook today when we divide images by the sexual features that are so important in modern identity.

Plazas as centers of public life. Cahokia's plazas, particularly the Grand Plaza, served as central gathering places for ceremonies, sporting events, and other public activities. These spaces fostered a sense of community and shared identity.

A city built on spirituality. Cahokia's founding was likely driven by a spiritual movement, with leaders promising a cultural and religious rebirth. The city's mounds, plazas, and rituals reflected this spiritual focus.

The importance of community. Cahokia's success depended on its ability to attract and integrate immigrants from diverse backgrounds, creating a shared sense of purpose and belonging.

10. Cahokia's deliberate abandonment reflects a cyclical view of urban life.

When you live in a city, the walls of other people’s houses will fall on you. Stuff accumulates in the street that will affect you. You take on a lot of extra work.

A planned ending. Cahokians engaged in rituals of "closing up" when abandoning houses and neighborhoods, suggesting a belief that every built environment had a set lifespan. This may have been a way of accepting the inevitability of change and decay.

Decentralization and fragmentation. As Cahokia declined, its population dispersed into smaller villages, and its centralized authority weakened. This reflects a shift away from large-scale urbanism and toward more localized forms of community.

Survivance and cultural continuity. Despite the abandonment of Cahokia, Mississippian culture survived in the traditions of Siouan tribes and continues to inspire indigenous artists and activists today.

11. Studying lost cities offers insights into building more resilient urban futures.

Today in cities across the world, we face the same problems our urban ancestors did, as politics are eroded by corruption and climate disaster looms.

Recurring challenges. Cities throughout history have faced similar challenges, including political instability, environmental crises, and social inequality. Studying these past failures can help us identify potential pitfalls and develop more effective solutions.

The importance of balance. Resilient cities require a balance between economic development, social equity, and environmental sustainability. Neglecting any of these aspects can lead to long-term consequences.

Human resilience and adaptation. Despite the challenges they face, cities have proven to be remarkably resilient over time. By learning from the past and embracing innovation, we can create urban environments that are better equipped to withstand the challenges of the future.

Last updated: February 22, 2025