Leviathan

1. Nature and Artifice: The Commonwealth as an Artificial Man

For by art is created that great Leviathan called a Commonwealth, or State (in Latin, Civitas), which is but an artificial man, though of greater stature and strength than the natural, for whose protection and defence it was intended.

Imitation of Nature. Hobbes introduces the idea that the Commonwealth is an artificial creation, mirroring nature's own designs. Just as God created the natural world, humans can create a political order that provides protection and defense. This artificial man, the Leviathan, is designed to overcome the inherent limitations and dangers of the state of nature.

The Leviathan's Anatomy. Hobbes meticulously compares the different aspects of the Commonwealth to the parts of a human body. The sovereign is the soul, giving life and motion; magistrates are the joints; rewards and punishments are the nerves; wealth is the strength; and the people's safety is its business. This analogy emphasizes the interconnectedness and interdependence of the different elements within a functioning state.

Purpose and Design. The creation of this artificial man is not accidental but intentional. It is driven by the need for protection and defense, which are unattainable in the natural state of war. The Commonwealth is a deliberate construction, designed to provide security and order, reflecting a rational and calculated approach to governance.

2. The Foundation of Knowledge: Sense, Imagination, and Speech

The original of them all is that which we call sense, (for there is no conception in a man’s mind which hath not at first, totally or by parts, been begotten upon the organs of sense).

Sense as the Origin. Hobbes asserts that all knowledge begins with sensory experience. There are no innate ideas; every thought, concept, and understanding is ultimately derived from the information gathered through our senses. This empiricist view emphasizes the importance of observation and experience in acquiring knowledge.

Imagination and Memory. Sense impressions decay over time, forming what Hobbes calls imagination. Memory is simply decaying sense, the fading image of past experiences. These images can be combined and compounded to create new ideas, but the foundation remains sensory experience.

The Power of Speech. Speech is the most significant human invention, allowing us to record our thoughts, recall past experiences, and communicate with one another. Without speech, there could be no society, no contracts, and no peace. Speech enables the development of reason and science, distinguishing humans from other animals.

3. The Human Condition: Power, Fear, and the State of War

Hereby it is manifest that during the time men live without a common power to keep them all in awe, they are in that condition which is called war; and such a war as is of every man against every man.

Equality and Conflict. Hobbes argues that nature has made men fundamentally equal in their faculties, both of body and mind. This equality, however, leads not to harmony but to competition and conflict. Because everyone has the potential to achieve their desires, they become enemies in the pursuit of limited resources and power.

The State of Nature. In the absence of a common power to enforce laws and contracts, human life is a "war of all against all." This state is characterized by constant fear, violence, and a lack of industry, culture, and social progress. Life in this condition is "solitary, poor, nasty, brutish, and short."

Causes of Quarrel. Hobbes identifies three primary causes of conflict in the state of nature: competition, diffidence (mistrust), and glory. Competition drives men to invade for gain, diffidence for safety, and glory for reputation. These motivations lead to a perpetual struggle for dominance and survival.

4. Natural Law: The Basis of Morality and Society

A law of nature, lex naturalis, is a precept, or general rule, found out by reason, by which a man is forbidden to do that which is destructive of his life, or taketh away the means of preserving the same; and to omit that by which he thinketh it may be best preserved.

Reason and Self-Preservation. Natural law is discovered through reason, guiding individuals to seek self-preservation. It dictates that one should avoid actions that threaten their own life and pursue those that protect it. This law is not imposed by an external authority but arises from the inherent drive for survival.

The First Law of Nature. The fundamental law of nature is to seek peace and follow it. This principle recognizes that the state of war is detrimental to self-preservation and that cooperation is essential for a secure and comfortable life. It is the foundation upon which all other natural laws are built.

The Second Law of Nature. The second law of nature is to lay down the right to all things and be content with as much liberty against others as one would allow them against oneself. This principle promotes mutual restraint and cooperation, creating a basis for social order and stability. It is the essence of the Golden Rule.

5. The Sovereign: Rights, Duties, and Limitations

The use and end of reason is not the finding of the sum and truth of one, or a few consequences, remote from the first definitions and settled significations of names; but to begin at these, and proceed from one consequence to another.

The Essence of Sovereignty. The sovereign, whether a monarch or an assembly, is the ultimate authority in the Commonwealth. This authority is indivisible and inalienable, essential for maintaining peace and security. The sovereign has the right to make laws, judge disputes, wage war, and control all aspects of governance.

Duties of the Sovereign. The primary duty of the sovereign is to ensure the safety and well-being of the people. This includes providing for their defense, administering justice fairly, and promoting prosperity. The sovereign must also ensure that the people are properly instructed in their duties and the laws of the Commonwealth.

Limitations on Sovereign Power. While the sovereign's power is absolute, it is not arbitrary. The sovereign is still bound by the laws of nature and must act in accordance with reason and equity. The sovereign's power is derived from the consent of the governed, and its legitimacy depends on its ability to provide protection and security.

6. Commonwealth Varieties: Institution and Succession

When the representative is one man, then is the Commonwealth a monarchy; when an assembly of all that will come together, then it is a democracy, or popular Commonwealth; when an assembly of a part only, then it is called an aristocracy.

Three Forms of Government. Hobbes identifies three basic types of Commonwealth: monarchy (rule by one), democracy (rule by all), and aristocracy (rule by a select few). He argues that these are the only possible forms, as sovereignty must reside in either one person, all persons, or a specific group of persons.

Monarchy Preferred. Hobbes expresses a preference for monarchy, arguing that it is the most effective form of government for promoting peace and security. In a monarchy, the private interest of the sovereign is aligned with the public interest, leading to more consistent and decisive governance.

The Right of Succession. To ensure stability, the sovereign must have the power to determine the succession. Without a clear line of succession, the Commonwealth is vulnerable to civil war and dissolution. The right of succession is essential for maintaining the artificial eternity of the state.

7. Religion and the Kingdom of Darkness: Sources of Disorder

Fear of power invisible, feigned by the mind, or imagined from tales publicly allowed, religion; not allowed, superstition. And when the power imagined is truly such as we imagine, true religion.

The Seed of Religion. Hobbes identifies the root of religion in human curiosity about the causes of events and the fear of invisible powers. This natural inclination can lead to either true religion or superstition, depending on whether it is guided by reason and truth or by imagination and falsehood.

Abuses of Religion. The kingdom of darkness arises from the misinterpretation of Scripture and the exploitation of religious beliefs for political gain. False doctrines, demonology, and reliance on tradition rather than reason contribute to spiritual darkness and social disorder.

The Role of the Sovereign. The sovereign has a responsibility to regulate religious beliefs and practices to maintain peace and unity in the Commonwealth. This includes suppressing superstitious practices, promoting sound doctrine, and ensuring that religious leaders do not undermine civil authority.

8. The Christian Commonwealth: Faith, Obedience, and Salvation

The Scripture was written to show unto men the kingdom of God, and to prepare their minds to become His obedient subjects, leaving the world, and the philosophy thereof, to the disputation of men for the exercising of their natural reason.

The Essence of Christian Faith. Hobbes argues that the only essential article of Christian faith is the belief that Jesus is the Christ. This belief, combined with a sincere desire to obey God's laws, is sufficient for salvation. He deemphasizes the importance of complex theological doctrines and emphasizes the simplicity of the Gospel message.

Obedience and Salvation. Obedience to the laws of nature and the civil sovereign is a crucial aspect of Christian life. Hobbes emphasizes that Christians are obligated to obey their rulers, even if they are infidels, in all things not contrary to the fundamental articles of faith. This obedience is essential for maintaining peace and order in the Commonwealth.

The Sovereign as Supreme Pastor. In a Christian Commonwealth, the civil sovereign is also the supreme pastor, responsible for regulating religious affairs and ensuring that the Church serves the interests of the state. This consolidation of power is necessary to prevent religious conflict and maintain social stability.

Last updated: March 3, 2025