Liberalism and Its Discontents

1. Classical liberalism: A framework for managing diversity and fostering individual autonomy

Liberalism lowers the temperature of politics by taking questions of final ends off the table: you can believe what you want, but you must do so in private life and not seek to impose your views on your fellow citizens.

Core tenets of liberalism. Classical liberalism emerged as a solution to religious conflicts, advocating for limited government power, individual rights, and tolerance of diverse viewpoints. It emphasizes:

• Protection of individual autonomy and rights
• Rule of law and constitutional constraints on power
• Free markets and property rights
• Tolerance for different beliefs and ways of life

Historical context. Liberalism arose in the 17th century following Europe's devastating religious wars. Thinkers like Hobbes and Locke sought to create a political framework that could accommodate diversity and prevent violent conflict over beliefs.

Evolution and expansion. Over time, liberal principles expanded to include:

• Universal human rights
• Democracy and popular sovereignty
• Social protections and welfare state provisions
• Expanding circle of rights-bearing individuals (e.g., women, minorities)

2. Neoliberalism's excesses: How economic liberalism evolved into an extreme ideology

Beginning in the late 1970s, economic liberalism evolved into what is now labeled neoliberalism, which dramatically increased economic inequality and brought on devastating financial crises that hurt ordinary people far more than wealthy elites in many countries around the globe.

Origins of neoliberalism. In the 1970s and 80s, a more extreme version of economic liberalism gained prominence, championed by economists like Milton Friedman and politicians like Ronald Reagan and Margaret Thatcher. Key tenets included:

• Deregulation of markets
• Privatization of public services
• Reduction of government spending and taxation
• Emphasis on individual responsibility over social welfare

Consequences. While neoliberal policies spurred economic growth in some areas, they also led to:

• Increased inequality within countries
• Financial instability and crises (e.g., 2008 global financial crisis)
• Erosion of social safety nets and worker protections
• Concentration of economic and political power in the hands of elites

Backlash. The negative effects of neoliberalism have fueled populist movements on both the right and left, challenging the legitimacy of liberal institutions and values.

3. The sovereign self: Expanding personal autonomy and its unintended consequences

Rawls like Kant sought to derive rules for a liberal society that were not based on a substantive theory of human nature or empirical observation of the ends that human beings actually seek.

Philosophical shifts. Liberal theory evolved to prioritize individual autonomy above all else, influenced by thinkers like John Rawls. This led to:

• Emphasis on choice itself over the content of choices
• Rejection of universal moral standards or "common good"
• Celebration of diversity and self-expression

Cultural implications. The focus on personal autonomy manifested in various cultural movements:

• Self-actualization and personal growth
• Wellness and self-care industries
• Customized spirituality and "remixed religion"

Unintended consequences. The extreme focus on individual autonomy has led to:

• Weakening of social bonds and community ties
• Difficulty in addressing collective challenges
• Rise of identity politics and group-based claims

4. Identity politics: From completing liberalism to challenging its core principles

Identity politics initially emerged as an effort to fulfill the promise of liberalism, which preached a doctrine of universal equality and equal protection of human dignity under the law.

Origins and evolution. Identity politics began as a way to advocate for marginalized groups within liberal societies, focusing on:

• Civil rights for racial minorities
• Women's rights and feminism
• LGBTQ+ rights and recognition

Shift in focus. Over time, some forms of identity politics moved from completing liberalism to challenging its core principles:

• Rejecting individualism in favor of group-based rights
• Questioning liberal claims to universalism and neutrality
• Critiquing liberal institutions as inherently oppressive

Tensions with liberalism. Contemporary identity politics often conflicts with liberal principles by:

• Emphasizing group identity over individual rights
• Advocating for equality of outcomes rather than opportunities
• Challenging free speech and open debate in favor of protecting group sensitivities

5. The erosion of rationality: Postmodernism's critique of liberal cognitive modes

Postmodernism and its critical theory offshoots have been around for a long time, and have been criticized and indeed ridiculed. A number of people working in this field, beginning with post-structuralists such as Lacan and Derrida, wrote in ways that seemed to deliberately obfuscate their thought and shield them from accountability for contradictions and weak logic.

Postmodern critique. Postmodern thinkers challenged the Enlightenment foundations of liberalism, arguing that:

• Objective truth and universal reason are myths
• Knowledge is always shaped by power relations
• Science and rationality are tools of oppression

Impact on liberal discourse. This critique has influenced contemporary debates by:

• Undermining trust in institutions and expertise
• Promoting relativism and "alternative facts"
• Shifting focus from rational argument to emotion and lived experience

Spread beyond academia. Postmodern ideas have influenced:

• Progressive activism and social justice movements
• Right-wing populism and conspiracy theories
• Media landscape and public discourse

6. Technology's double-edged sword: New challenges to privacy and free speech

The internet platforms have made great use of motivated reasoning. They possess mountains of data about their users' preferences, which allows them to target content in very precise ways so as to maximize those users' interactions with them.

Digital transformation. The rise of the internet and social media has profoundly impacted liberal societies:

• Democratization of information and communication
• New forms of surveillance and data collection
• Concentration of power in tech platforms

Challenges to free speech. Digital technologies have created new threats to free expression:

• Content moderation and censorship by private companies
• Amplification of misinformation and extremism
• Echo chambers and filter bubbles

Privacy concerns. The digital age has eroded traditional notions of privacy:

• Ubiquitous data collection and tracking
• Blurring of public and private spheres
• Use of personal data for manipulation and control

7. National identity: Reconciling universal values with the need for community

National identity represents obvious dangers, but also an opportunity. National identity is a social construct, and it can be shaped to support rather than undermine liberal values.

Tension with universalism. Liberal theory struggles to reconcile its universal claims with the reality of nation-states:

• Difficulty in drawing boundaries around liberal communities
• Challenges in addressing issues like immigration and separatism

Importance of national identity. Despite tensions, national identity remains crucial for:

• Providing a sense of community and solidarity
• Legitimizing state power and institutions
• Fostering social trust and cooperation

Liberal nationalism. It is possible to construct national identities based on liberal principles:

• Emphasizing shared political values over ethnic or religious ties
• Promoting inclusive citizenship and integration
• Balancing universal rights with particular cultural traditions

8. Alternatives to liberalism: Examining critiques from both right and left

To paraphrase what Winston Churchill once said about democracy, liberalism is the worst form of government, except for all the others.

Right-wing critiques. Conservative opponents of liberalism argue for:

• Return to traditional moral and religious values
• Stronger national identity and cultural homogeneity
• Limits on individual autonomy in favor of community standards

Left-wing critiques. Progressive critics of liberalism call for:

• Radical redistribution of wealth and power
• Recognition of group rights over individual rights
• Abandonment of liberal neutrality in favor of social justice

Viability of alternatives. While both right and left offer critiques of liberalism, neither has presented a compelling and realistic alternative that can:

• Manage diversity without oppression
• Foster economic growth and innovation
• Protect individual rights and freedoms

9. Principles for a liberal society: Balancing individual rights, diversity, and effective governance

Classical liberalism is needed more than ever today, because the United States (as well as other liberal democracies) are more diverse than they ever were.

Revitalizing liberalism. To address current challenges, liberal societies should:

• Acknowledge the need for effective government and state capacity
• Balance individual rights with social cohesion and common purpose
• Protect free speech while addressing new technological threats
• Foster inclusive national identities based on shared political values

Key principles:

1. Embrace diversity while maintaining core liberal values
2. Promote high-quality, accountable governance
3. Balance economic growth with equitable distribution
4. Protect individual privacy and freedom of expression
5. Maintain rational discourse and shared understanding of facts

Path forward. Liberalism must evolve to meet contemporary challenges while preserving its core commitment to individual liberty, equal rights, and tolerance of diversity.

Last updated: January 24, 2025